EXPLORING THE MUSICALITY OF ADULT
NON-MUSICIANS
EXPLORANDO LA MUSICALIDAD DE LOS ADULTOS NO
MÚSICOS
Alejandro Ayos
Universidad Griffith University – Australia
Brittany McCormack
Universidad Griffith University – Australia
Harry Kanasa
Universidad Griffith University - Australia
DRAFT
pág. 2355
DOI: https://doi.org/10.37811/cl_rcm.v9i2.17063
Exploring the Musicality of Adult Non-Musicians
Alejandro Ayos 1
b.ayoshernandez@griffith.edu.au
https://orcid.org/0009-0001-6322-8059
Universidad Griffith University
Brisbane, Australia
Brittany McCormack
b.mccormack@griffith.eud.au
https://orcid.org/0009-0000-5283-6131
Universidad Griffith University
Brisbane, Australia
Harry Kanasa
h.kanasa@griffith.edu.au
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9718-4074
Universidad Griffith University
Brisbane, Australia
ABSTRACT
While the development of musicality, how one interacts with their socio-acoustic environment, is
well-documented in musicians, its progression in adult non-musicians remains less explored. This
study aims to understand how musicality develops and is expressed in adult non-musicians by
employing a mixed-methods, multiple case study approach with five adult non-musicians. The main
research question was ‘what musical socio-cultural experiences are discernible in adult non-musicians
and how could these experiences have affected participants’ musicality levels? Musical aural skills
were assessed using the mini-PROMS musicality test (Zentner & Strauss, 2017) and semi-structured
interviews were conducted to uncover contributing socio-cultural experiences. All participants
displayed at least a basic level of musical proficiency, with content analysis of the interviews revealing
five overarching themes: the role of music in daily life; pivotal musical experiences; cognitive
processes; key external influences; and acquired skills. These findings shed light on the significance of
music in the lives of all adults and how musical abilities can still develop in non-formal educational
environments. Future studies should compare the themes discovered in this study to elucidate their
interrelationships in the development of musicality during the entire human lifespan, from childhood
to old age.
Keywords musicality, adult non-musicians, mixed methods, case studies
1 Autor principal
Correspondencia: b.ayoshernandez@griffith.edu.au
pág. 2355
DOI: https://doi.org/10.37811/cl_rcm.v9i2.17063
Exploring the Musicality of Adult Non-Musicians
Alejandro Ayos 1
b.ayoshernandez@griffith.edu.au
https://orcid.org/0009-0001-6322-8059
Universidad Griffith University
Brisbane, Australia
Brittany McCormack
b.mccormack@griffith.eud.au
https://orcid.org/0009-0000-5283-6131
Universidad Griffith University
Brisbane, Australia
Harry Kanasa
h.kanasa@griffith.edu.au
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9718-4074
Universidad Griffith University
Brisbane, Australia
ABSTRACT
While the development of musicality, how one interacts with their socio-acoustic environment, is
well-documented in musicians, its progression in adult non-musicians remains less explored. This
study aims to understand how musicality develops and is expressed in adult non-musicians by
employing a mixed-methods, multiple case study approach with five adult non-musicians. The main
research question was ‘what musical socio-cultural experiences are discernible in adult non-musicians
and how could these experiences have affected participants’ musicality levels? Musical aural skills
were assessed using the mini-PROMS musicality test (Zentner & Strauss, 2017) and semi-structured
interviews were conducted to uncover contributing socio-cultural experiences. All participants
displayed at least a basic level of musical proficiency, with content analysis of the interviews revealing
five overarching themes: the role of music in daily life; pivotal musical experiences; cognitive
processes; key external influences; and acquired skills. These findings shed light on the significance of
music in the lives of all adults and how musical abilities can still develop in non-formal educational
environments. Future studies should compare the themes discovered in this study to elucidate their
interrelationships in the development of musicality during the entire human lifespan, from childhood
to old age.
Keywords musicality, adult non-musicians, mixed methods, case studies
1 Autor principal
Correspondencia: b.ayoshernandez@griffith.edu.au
DRAFT
pág. 2356
Explorando la Musicalidad de los Adultos No Músicos
RESUMEN
Mientras que el desarrollo de la musicalidad, la forma en que una persona interactúa con su entorno
socio-acústico, está bien documentado en los músicos, su progreso en adultos no músicos sigue siendo
menos explorado. Este estudio tiene como objetivo comprender cómo se desarrolla y se expresa la
musicalidad en adultos no músicos mediante un enfoque de estudio de casos múltiples y métodos
mixtos con cinco adultos no músicos. La pregunta principal de investigación fue: "¿Qué experiencias
socio-culturales musicales son discernibles en adultos no músicos y cómo podrían estas experiencias
haber afectado los niveles de musicalidad de los participantes?" Las habilidades auditivas musicales se
evaluaron utilizando la prueba de musicalidad mini-PROMS (Zentner & Strauss, 2017) y se realizaron
entrevistas semiestructuradas para descubrir las experiencias socio-culturales que contribuyen. Todos
los participantes mostraron al menos un nivel básico de destreza musical, y el análisis de contenido de
las entrevistas reveló cinco temas generales: el papel de la música en la vida diaria; experiencias
musicales clave; procesos cognitivos; influencias externas clave; y habilidades adquiridas. Estos
hallazgos arrojan luz sobre la importancia de la música en la vida de todos los adultos y cómo las
habilidades musicales aún pueden desarrollarse en entornos educativos no formales. Los estudios
futuros deberían comparar los temas descubiertos en este estudio para dilucidar sus interrelaciones en
el desarrollo de la musicalidad a lo largo de toda la vida humana, desde la infancia hasta la vejez.
Palabras Claves: métodos mixtos, estudios de caso, musicalidad, adultos no músicos
Artículo recibido 15 febrero 2025
Aceptado para publicación: 19 marzo 2025
pág. 2356
Explorando la Musicalidad de los Adultos No Músicos
RESUMEN
Mientras que el desarrollo de la musicalidad, la forma en que una persona interactúa con su entorno
socio-acústico, está bien documentado en los músicos, su progreso en adultos no músicos sigue siendo
menos explorado. Este estudio tiene como objetivo comprender cómo se desarrolla y se expresa la
musicalidad en adultos no músicos mediante un enfoque de estudio de casos múltiples y métodos
mixtos con cinco adultos no músicos. La pregunta principal de investigación fue: "¿Qué experiencias
socio-culturales musicales son discernibles en adultos no músicos y cómo podrían estas experiencias
haber afectado los niveles de musicalidad de los participantes?" Las habilidades auditivas musicales se
evaluaron utilizando la prueba de musicalidad mini-PROMS (Zentner & Strauss, 2017) y se realizaron
entrevistas semiestructuradas para descubrir las experiencias socio-culturales que contribuyen. Todos
los participantes mostraron al menos un nivel básico de destreza musical, y el análisis de contenido de
las entrevistas reveló cinco temas generales: el papel de la música en la vida diaria; experiencias
musicales clave; procesos cognitivos; influencias externas clave; y habilidades adquiridas. Estos
hallazgos arrojan luz sobre la importancia de la música en la vida de todos los adultos y cómo las
habilidades musicales aún pueden desarrollarse en entornos educativos no formales. Los estudios
futuros deberían comparar los temas descubiertos en este estudio para dilucidar sus interrelaciones en
el desarrollo de la musicalidad a lo largo de toda la vida humana, desde la infancia hasta la vejez.
Palabras Claves: métodos mixtos, estudios de caso, musicalidad, adultos no músicos
Artículo recibido 15 febrero 2025
Aceptado para publicación: 19 marzo 2025
DRAFT
pág. 2357
INTRODUCTION
Musicality is defined by Khalass et al. (2019) as a person's inherent ability to perceive and reproduce
music, which may be achieved through their rhythmic coordination and singing skills developed
through an organic listening approach to music. Music has the potential to serve various purposes in
people's lives, such as dancing, emotional regulation, daily activities, ceremonies, and performances
(Henson & Wyke, 1982). These musical activities, coupled with a diverse array of musical styles, are
prevalent in numerous societies and cultural practices and might influence listeners' musical skills. As
Small (1998) notes, music is an activity enjoyed by both musicians and non-musicians and is mediated
by a sense of musicality.
The idea that people’s musicality is considered an inherent ability common to all humans (Jaffurs,
2004), permits the exploration of how it is expressed in adult non-musicians. This idea is consistent
with Colwell and Davidson’s work (1996) who stated that musical skills are not solely exclusive to
musicians. Instead, it is argued that musicality is an organic human competence shaped and influenced
by socio-cultural experiences (see also Hallam, 2017). Arising more academic criticism, this previous
concept poses challenges the notion that formal music education, instrumental proficiency, and music
theory are prerequisites for the development and expression of musicality in everyday life (Cohen,
1990).
While this research acknowledges empiric evidence related to the impact of specific music styles (e.g.,
Jazz and classical) in the life of non-musicians (Pramono, 2019), this study examines the development
and expression of musicality in adult non-musicians, with a specific focus on the influence of various
socio-cultural experiences. Hawkins et al. (2017) and Welch (1998) arguably support the notion that
musicality experiences develop over a lifetime because of listening and exposure to any type of music,
even when individuals lack interest in playing musical instruments or receiving formal music
education. For example, individuals may manifest their natural sense of musicality through activities
like singing and tapping along to the radio. It represents a common method for non-musicians to
express their musicality naturally as they can engage with music in their environment purely by
listening for melodic and rhythmic patterns (Swanwick, 2016).
pág. 2357
INTRODUCTION
Musicality is defined by Khalass et al. (2019) as a person's inherent ability to perceive and reproduce
music, which may be achieved through their rhythmic coordination and singing skills developed
through an organic listening approach to music. Music has the potential to serve various purposes in
people's lives, such as dancing, emotional regulation, daily activities, ceremonies, and performances
(Henson & Wyke, 1982). These musical activities, coupled with a diverse array of musical styles, are
prevalent in numerous societies and cultural practices and might influence listeners' musical skills. As
Small (1998) notes, music is an activity enjoyed by both musicians and non-musicians and is mediated
by a sense of musicality.
The idea that people’s musicality is considered an inherent ability common to all humans (Jaffurs,
2004), permits the exploration of how it is expressed in adult non-musicians. This idea is consistent
with Colwell and Davidson’s work (1996) who stated that musical skills are not solely exclusive to
musicians. Instead, it is argued that musicality is an organic human competence shaped and influenced
by socio-cultural experiences (see also Hallam, 2017). Arising more academic criticism, this previous
concept poses challenges the notion that formal music education, instrumental proficiency, and music
theory are prerequisites for the development and expression of musicality in everyday life (Cohen,
1990).
While this research acknowledges empiric evidence related to the impact of specific music styles (e.g.,
Jazz and classical) in the life of non-musicians (Pramono, 2019), this study examines the development
and expression of musicality in adult non-musicians, with a specific focus on the influence of various
socio-cultural experiences. Hawkins et al. (2017) and Welch (1998) arguably support the notion that
musicality experiences develop over a lifetime because of listening and exposure to any type of music,
even when individuals lack interest in playing musical instruments or receiving formal music
education. For example, individuals may manifest their natural sense of musicality through activities
like singing and tapping along to the radio. It represents a common method for non-musicians to
express their musicality naturally as they can engage with music in their environment purely by
listening for melodic and rhythmic patterns (Swanwick, 2016).
DRAFT
pág. 2358
Cognitive, affective and behavioural engagement with music is crucial for individuals to explore and
develop their musicality because it contributes to positive experiences that operate on a sub-conscious
level (Hallam, 2017). According to Welch et al. (2019), this musical engagement is possible because
many individuals have the ability to be musical through body synchronization skills. Measuring the
musical skills of adult non-musicians, including their melodic, temporal, and rhythmic abilities, is an
objective complementing the study’s aim which is exploring the development of musicality and how
socio-cultural experiences influence it in adulthood as justified by Trehub et al. (2019) ‘‘Musicality is
a uniquely human and spontaneously developing trait that allows us to perceive, move in time to it and
sing; it is influenced by biological, cognitive, and cultural factors, and its expression varies across the
lifespan’’ (p.265). Hence, what musical socio-cultural experiences are discernible in adult non-
musicians and how could these experiences have affected participants’ musicality levels?
Literature Review
Critical analysis: Musicality as an organic ability that serves different functions in people’s life
Adopting a critical stance, musicality is not just the domain of professional musicians, as many
researchers have suggested. The functions of musicality in the lives of adult non-musicians have clear
implications for them, which serve as fundamental assumptions in this manuscript. For example,
musicality is a biological ability possessed by all humans (Fitch, 2015) but is not limited to making
sense of (Swanwick, 2016), enjoying (Jones, 2018), learning (Trehub et al., 2019), and performing
music (Khalass et al., 2019). Young and Gillen (2007) consider musicality a set of skills that allows
individuals to interpret and respond to musical elements, influenced by cognition and exposure to
music within socio-cultural experiences. While Jones (2018) proposes that an academic approach
might be the most appropriate way to explore musicality in adult non-musicians, the scientific
approach to musicality formulated by Young and Gillen (2007) was chosen. This decision aligns with
the assumption that musical skills naturally develop over time and are measurable, consistent with the
study's objectives.
Why and how socio-cultural experiences are deterministic in developing musicality in non-musicians
As a standard definition of socio-cultural experiences adopted in the development of this study,
Vygotsky offers an interesting perspective, conceptualising them as lived interactions between
pág. 2358
Cognitive, affective and behavioural engagement with music is crucial for individuals to explore and
develop their musicality because it contributes to positive experiences that operate on a sub-conscious
level (Hallam, 2017). According to Welch et al. (2019), this musical engagement is possible because
many individuals have the ability to be musical through body synchronization skills. Measuring the
musical skills of adult non-musicians, including their melodic, temporal, and rhythmic abilities, is an
objective complementing the study’s aim which is exploring the development of musicality and how
socio-cultural experiences influence it in adulthood as justified by Trehub et al. (2019) ‘‘Musicality is
a uniquely human and spontaneously developing trait that allows us to perceive, move in time to it and
sing; it is influenced by biological, cognitive, and cultural factors, and its expression varies across the
lifespan’’ (p.265). Hence, what musical socio-cultural experiences are discernible in adult non-
musicians and how could these experiences have affected participants’ musicality levels?
Literature Review
Critical analysis: Musicality as an organic ability that serves different functions in people’s life
Adopting a critical stance, musicality is not just the domain of professional musicians, as many
researchers have suggested. The functions of musicality in the lives of adult non-musicians have clear
implications for them, which serve as fundamental assumptions in this manuscript. For example,
musicality is a biological ability possessed by all humans (Fitch, 2015) but is not limited to making
sense of (Swanwick, 2016), enjoying (Jones, 2018), learning (Trehub et al., 2019), and performing
music (Khalass et al., 2019). Young and Gillen (2007) consider musicality a set of skills that allows
individuals to interpret and respond to musical elements, influenced by cognition and exposure to
music within socio-cultural experiences. While Jones (2018) proposes that an academic approach
might be the most appropriate way to explore musicality in adult non-musicians, the scientific
approach to musicality formulated by Young and Gillen (2007) was chosen. This decision aligns with
the assumption that musical skills naturally develop over time and are measurable, consistent with the
study's objectives.
Why and how socio-cultural experiences are deterministic in developing musicality in non-musicians
As a standard definition of socio-cultural experiences adopted in the development of this study,
Vygotsky offers an interesting perspective, conceptualising them as lived interactions between
DRAFT
pág. 2359
individuals and their context, mediated by natural cognitive processes that guide the maturing of
multiple skills (Mahn, 1999). Arguing for the relevance of socio-cultural experiences in discussions of
musicality, Vygotsky also introduced the idea that individuals’ development is also shaped by various
factors, including musical traditions. Trehub et al. (2019) contributed to this musicality discussion,
asserting that musicality is nurtured through continuous exposure to emotionally charged socio-
cultural musical experiences (e.g., festivals), whether consciously or subconsciously, in both academic
and non-academic settings. They note that even non-musicians without formal musical training can
perceive, differentiate, compare, replicate, and sing diverse musical patterns.
Trehub and colleagues’ findings also align with Welch’s work (1998) evidencing that sustained
engagement in musical practices, coupled with natural learning processes, plays a pivotal role in
shaping musicality in non-musicians throughout their lives as many individuals, whether passively or
actively, participate along their life span in various musical contexts such as pub gatherings, birthdays,
and ceremonies, enabling them to create meaningful musical experiences (Cross & Morley, 2010).
From a critical perspective, the arguments discussed in this paper suggest how and why socio-cultural
practices have the potential to influence the development of musicality in adult non-musicians.
Nevertheless, a deeper understanding of the correlations between musical skills and musicality across
the lifespan could further explain higher musicality levels in adulthood.
A non-inferential approach: Battery tests as a scientific trend to Measure Musicality Levels
The use of inferential statistical tools to generalise results in examining variables such as melody and
rhythm in determining music aesthetics (e.g., see Bonneville-Roussy and Eerola, 2018) has been
notable. However, battery tests remain reliable such the one used for this research because it is an
accepted method among scholars (see, Zentner & Strauβ, 2017). Extending the critical academic
discussion on quantifying musicality, various scholars (Gaston, 1970; Seashore et al., 1960) have
employed musicality battery tests as quantitative tools to measure individuals' musical capabilities—
one of the many aspects of musicality. For instance, Gordon (1970) and Karma (1976) devised
musical tests aimed specifically at assessing auditory skills.
Critiquing this approach, these assessments are often characterised by their reliance on diverse musical
tasks designed to numerically quantify musical ability, including gauging individuals' perceptions of
pág. 2359
individuals and their context, mediated by natural cognitive processes that guide the maturing of
multiple skills (Mahn, 1999). Arguing for the relevance of socio-cultural experiences in discussions of
musicality, Vygotsky also introduced the idea that individuals’ development is also shaped by various
factors, including musical traditions. Trehub et al. (2019) contributed to this musicality discussion,
asserting that musicality is nurtured through continuous exposure to emotionally charged socio-
cultural musical experiences (e.g., festivals), whether consciously or subconsciously, in both academic
and non-academic settings. They note that even non-musicians without formal musical training can
perceive, differentiate, compare, replicate, and sing diverse musical patterns.
Trehub and colleagues’ findings also align with Welch’s work (1998) evidencing that sustained
engagement in musical practices, coupled with natural learning processes, plays a pivotal role in
shaping musicality in non-musicians throughout their lives as many individuals, whether passively or
actively, participate along their life span in various musical contexts such as pub gatherings, birthdays,
and ceremonies, enabling them to create meaningful musical experiences (Cross & Morley, 2010).
From a critical perspective, the arguments discussed in this paper suggest how and why socio-cultural
practices have the potential to influence the development of musicality in adult non-musicians.
Nevertheless, a deeper understanding of the correlations between musical skills and musicality across
the lifespan could further explain higher musicality levels in adulthood.
A non-inferential approach: Battery tests as a scientific trend to Measure Musicality Levels
The use of inferential statistical tools to generalise results in examining variables such as melody and
rhythm in determining music aesthetics (e.g., see Bonneville-Roussy and Eerola, 2018) has been
notable. However, battery tests remain reliable such the one used for this research because it is an
accepted method among scholars (see, Zentner & Strauβ, 2017). Extending the critical academic
discussion on quantifying musicality, various scholars (Gaston, 1970; Seashore et al., 1960) have
employed musicality battery tests as quantitative tools to measure individuals' musical capabilities—
one of the many aspects of musicality. For instance, Gordon (1970) and Karma (1976) devised
musical tests aimed specifically at assessing auditory skills.
Critiquing this approach, these assessments are often characterised by their reliance on diverse musical
tasks designed to numerically quantify musical ability, including gauging individuals' perceptions of
DRAFT
pág. 2360
pitch, volume, and tempo (Hansen & Milligan, 2012). However, the discussion of musicality
quantification in this paper does not solely theorise that individuals with high levels of musicality will
discern temporal variations, harmonic structures, melodic sequences, and rhythmic patterns. Colwell
and Davidson (1996) also caution that deficiencies in auditory skills can hinder individuals from
experiencing and cultivating musicality, a valid point of consideration when selecting a reliable battery
test for this research.
New and non-inferential quantitative approaches to measuring musicality have emerged, which have
been employed to gauge musical aptitude in both musicians (e.g., Law and Zentner, 2012) and non-
musicians (e.g., Müllensiefen et al., 2014). These tests facilitate grading levels, classification, and
comparisons between these groups. However, contributing to academic criticism of battery tests,
psychometric tools, while effective in assessing and comparing musical proficiency in adult non-
musicians, keep possessing notable limitations. These tools primarily yield numerical scores and often
fail to account for musical engagement or the impact of individuals’ prior socio-cultural musical
experiences.
Establishing the validity of results derived from these battery tests remains a topic of debate in the
ongoing scholarly discussion of musicality. Such tests results may be influenced by the intensity of
adult non-musicians' socio-cultural engagement with music and their daily music-related activities
(Wagemaker et al., 2020). For this reason, a mixed-methods methodology was adopted in this study.
The qualitative approach (semi-structured interviews) was designed to illuminate the impact of key
socio-cultural experiences on musicality, examining and analysing potential relationships between
musicality levels and the intensity of musical experiences throughout participants' lifespans.
METHODOLOGY
A convergent mixed methods approach (Tashakkori and Creswell, 2007) was employed to address the
research questions, what musical socio-cultural experiences are discernible in adult non-musicians and
how could these experiences have affected participants’ musicality levels? This necessitated the
measurement of musicality using quantitative means, while the qualitative portion consisted of
multiple case studies (Meriam, 2009) designed to explore the musicality in adulthood providing a
richer description than say a single case study approach.
pág. 2360
pitch, volume, and tempo (Hansen & Milligan, 2012). However, the discussion of musicality
quantification in this paper does not solely theorise that individuals with high levels of musicality will
discern temporal variations, harmonic structures, melodic sequences, and rhythmic patterns. Colwell
and Davidson (1996) also caution that deficiencies in auditory skills can hinder individuals from
experiencing and cultivating musicality, a valid point of consideration when selecting a reliable battery
test for this research.
New and non-inferential quantitative approaches to measuring musicality have emerged, which have
been employed to gauge musical aptitude in both musicians (e.g., Law and Zentner, 2012) and non-
musicians (e.g., Müllensiefen et al., 2014). These tests facilitate grading levels, classification, and
comparisons between these groups. However, contributing to academic criticism of battery tests,
psychometric tools, while effective in assessing and comparing musical proficiency in adult non-
musicians, keep possessing notable limitations. These tools primarily yield numerical scores and often
fail to account for musical engagement or the impact of individuals’ prior socio-cultural musical
experiences.
Establishing the validity of results derived from these battery tests remains a topic of debate in the
ongoing scholarly discussion of musicality. Such tests results may be influenced by the intensity of
adult non-musicians' socio-cultural engagement with music and their daily music-related activities
(Wagemaker et al., 2020). For this reason, a mixed-methods methodology was adopted in this study.
The qualitative approach (semi-structured interviews) was designed to illuminate the impact of key
socio-cultural experiences on musicality, examining and analysing potential relationships between
musicality levels and the intensity of musical experiences throughout participants' lifespans.
METHODOLOGY
A convergent mixed methods approach (Tashakkori and Creswell, 2007) was employed to address the
research questions, what musical socio-cultural experiences are discernible in adult non-musicians and
how could these experiences have affected participants’ musicality levels? This necessitated the
measurement of musicality using quantitative means, while the qualitative portion consisted of
multiple case studies (Meriam, 2009) designed to explore the musicality in adulthood providing a
richer description than say a single case study approach.
DRAFT
pág. 2361
Participants
This study implemented a transversal approach, enabling the researcher to measure and capture
detailed aspects of the phenomenon within a specific period (Creswell, 2014). Five adult participants
were selected through purposive sampling (Alkassim et al., 2016), an appropriate method given the
exploratory nature of the research and the goal of providing rich descriptions of the phenomenon—the
development of musicality in non-musicians—without requiring generalisability. Participants were
screened to ensure they were non-musicians: the inability to read, recognise, and interpret musical
symbolic and elements (Gaser & Schlaug, 2003); the inability to compose music (Carlow, 2015); the
inability to play any musical instrument (Hallam, 2015); and a self-declaration of being a non-
musician (Hoshino, 2017). The participants ranged in ages from 31 to 58, 2 males and 3 females, and
all met the stated criteria above of being non-musicians.
The mini-PROMS
The mini-PROMS (Profile of Music Perception Skills) (Zentner & Strauβ, 2017) is a computer-based
test that was used to measure participants’ aural skills in relation to melody, rhythm, pitch and tempo
in which they had to identify the similarities and differences within each skill. Participants engaged in
four tests in which each took approximately 8 minutes to complete. Melodic and temporal aspects are
assessed and rated on a 10-point scale, while pitch and accent were used on an 8-point scale. These
subcomponents were combined to produce the 'Comprehensive Musicality Score' on a 0 to 36 scale.
The numerical musical achievement is determined by the mini-PROMS and participants’
performances ranges are categorised as Outstanding (scores above 28), Excellent (scores between 23
and 27.5), Good (scores between 18 and 22.5), or Basic (scores below 18). The mini-PROMS was
used instead of the full version due to the reduction in time (1 hour versus 15 minutes) whilst
maintaining high test-retest reliability (r=.087) with the full version, the PROMS-S.
The semi-structured interview
A semi-structured interview protocol was the socio-cultural experiences that have impacted on the
development of their musicality. Questions were developed around themes of: the importance of
music, significant musical experiences, music preferences and social and cultural influences (see
¡Error! No se encuentra el origen de la referencia.). Interviews typically lasted 30 minutes. As it
pág. 2361
Participants
This study implemented a transversal approach, enabling the researcher to measure and capture
detailed aspects of the phenomenon within a specific period (Creswell, 2014). Five adult participants
were selected through purposive sampling (Alkassim et al., 2016), an appropriate method given the
exploratory nature of the research and the goal of providing rich descriptions of the phenomenon—the
development of musicality in non-musicians—without requiring generalisability. Participants were
screened to ensure they were non-musicians: the inability to read, recognise, and interpret musical
symbolic and elements (Gaser & Schlaug, 2003); the inability to compose music (Carlow, 2015); the
inability to play any musical instrument (Hallam, 2015); and a self-declaration of being a non-
musician (Hoshino, 2017). The participants ranged in ages from 31 to 58, 2 males and 3 females, and
all met the stated criteria above of being non-musicians.
The mini-PROMS
The mini-PROMS (Profile of Music Perception Skills) (Zentner & Strauβ, 2017) is a computer-based
test that was used to measure participants’ aural skills in relation to melody, rhythm, pitch and tempo
in which they had to identify the similarities and differences within each skill. Participants engaged in
four tests in which each took approximately 8 minutes to complete. Melodic and temporal aspects are
assessed and rated on a 10-point scale, while pitch and accent were used on an 8-point scale. These
subcomponents were combined to produce the 'Comprehensive Musicality Score' on a 0 to 36 scale.
The numerical musical achievement is determined by the mini-PROMS and participants’
performances ranges are categorised as Outstanding (scores above 28), Excellent (scores between 23
and 27.5), Good (scores between 18 and 22.5), or Basic (scores below 18). The mini-PROMS was
used instead of the full version due to the reduction in time (1 hour versus 15 minutes) whilst
maintaining high test-retest reliability (r=.087) with the full version, the PROMS-S.
The semi-structured interview
A semi-structured interview protocol was the socio-cultural experiences that have impacted on the
development of their musicality. Questions were developed around themes of: the importance of
music, significant musical experiences, music preferences and social and cultural influences (see
¡Error! No se encuentra el origen de la referencia.). Interviews typically lasted 30 minutes. As it
DRAFT
pág. 2362
will be seen in the findings section, the themes used to create the questions are quite different to the
emergent themes as a result of the thematic analysis described in Data Analysis.
Table 1. Themes, main questions and promptings of the semi-structured interview protocol
Theme Main question Prompting questions
Importance
of music
How important is
music in your life, on
a scale of ‘extremely
important’ to
‘extremely
unimportant’?
Why?
What does this look like in your everyday life now?
Do you sing or whistle your favourite music melodies or
songs?
Did you learn your favourite songs deliberately?
Do you think that music impacts your daily life? How?
The most
significant
experience
What is your most
memorable (positive
and negative) musical
experience?
How old were you?
Where were you?
Were you with other significant people?
How did it effect you?
What was the lasting impact of that memory?
Other
significant
experiences
Were there any other
memorable musical
experiences?
When?
Where?
How do you think that experience affects your musicality?
Does it help to explore music?
Does it make you want to study music or not?
Music
preferences
What is your favourite
song and how does it
affect you?
Did you learn it deliberately?
Can you recognise the next musical elements of your
favourite song timbre, rhythm patterns, melody and the
harmonic characteristics?
Does it help you to easily desire to play music instrument?
Do you feel that your music preferences were influenced by
you parents or someone else?
Do your music preferences help you to live a better life?
Why? Does it make you more musical and responsive by
singing, dancing or even try to play a music instrument?
Social
influences
Socially, do you think
that your family, or
friends influence your
favourite music?
Most of the music that you know or like, where did you
learn it from?
Does your family, friends or any place-institution
affected to react musically?
Is music important for you and social purposes? For
pág. 2362
will be seen in the findings section, the themes used to create the questions are quite different to the
emergent themes as a result of the thematic analysis described in Data Analysis.
Table 1. Themes, main questions and promptings of the semi-structured interview protocol
Theme Main question Prompting questions
Importance
of music
How important is
music in your life, on
a scale of ‘extremely
important’ to
‘extremely
unimportant’?
Why?
What does this look like in your everyday life now?
Do you sing or whistle your favourite music melodies or
songs?
Did you learn your favourite songs deliberately?
Do you think that music impacts your daily life? How?
The most
significant
experience
What is your most
memorable (positive
and negative) musical
experience?
How old were you?
Where were you?
Were you with other significant people?
How did it effect you?
What was the lasting impact of that memory?
Other
significant
experiences
Were there any other
memorable musical
experiences?
When?
Where?
How do you think that experience affects your musicality?
Does it help to explore music?
Does it make you want to study music or not?
Music
preferences
What is your favourite
song and how does it
affect you?
Did you learn it deliberately?
Can you recognise the next musical elements of your
favourite song timbre, rhythm patterns, melody and the
harmonic characteristics?
Does it help you to easily desire to play music instrument?
Do you feel that your music preferences were influenced by
you parents or someone else?
Do your music preferences help you to live a better life?
Why? Does it make you more musical and responsive by
singing, dancing or even try to play a music instrument?
Social
influences
Socially, do you think
that your family, or
friends influence your
favourite music?
Most of the music that you know or like, where did you
learn it from?
Does your family, friends or any place-institution
affected to react musically?
Is music important for you and social purposes? For
DRAFT
pág. 2363
example: driving to work, working out at the gym, family
dinners?
Socially, do you feel that music ceremonies, music concerts,
and the music at the pub contribute to learning new
melodies, music rhythms or singing new things?
Cultural
influences
Culturally,
what particular
events contributed to
learning your
favourite music?
Do you remember any carnival, religious ceremony,
patriotic celebration melody, rhythm or melody?
Did you learn that consciously or unconsciously?
When you listen to music, do you pay attention to the
technical elements or just how good it sounds like?
Is it important for your music representative cultural songs
such as the national anthem or the hymn of your favourite
rugby team because you can easily engage musically?
Methods Procedure
Potential participants were invited to take part in the research via email or personal invitation. Five
participants were deemed suitable for inclusion and consented to participation. After written consent
was obtained, the interview was conducted followed by the administration of the mini-PROMS, both
activities lasting approximately 30 minutes. Ethical approval was sought and granted by Griffith
University's academic ethics committee reference no. 2021/679.
Data Analysis
The interviews were transcribed, helping the researchers become familiar with the content of the
conversations (Hashimov, 2015) and emergent coding was used to allow themes to emerge naturally
out of the data, without prejudice (Latendresse et al., 2020). The emergent codes were grouped and
regrouped to eventually generated five major themes (Connelly & Peltzer, 2016). Leximancer was
then used to establish the validity of the five themes (Morse, 2015).
Participants’ musicality was determined (basic, good or excellent) using the mini-PROMS and then
used to provide a finer grained analysis, allowing for the integration of the quantitative and qualitative
findings, using Leximancer. Participants were identified in the concept map (See Figure 1) by their
musicality description (the words in red, called nodes) to explore common themes by level of
musicality. Understanding critically how Leximancer was used in this study, it employed thematic
pág. 2363
example: driving to work, working out at the gym, family
dinners?
Socially, do you feel that music ceremonies, music concerts,
and the music at the pub contribute to learning new
melodies, music rhythms or singing new things?
Cultural
influences
Culturally,
what particular
events contributed to
learning your
favourite music?
Do you remember any carnival, religious ceremony,
patriotic celebration melody, rhythm or melody?
Did you learn that consciously or unconsciously?
When you listen to music, do you pay attention to the
technical elements or just how good it sounds like?
Is it important for your music representative cultural songs
such as the national anthem or the hymn of your favourite
rugby team because you can easily engage musically?
Methods Procedure
Potential participants were invited to take part in the research via email or personal invitation. Five
participants were deemed suitable for inclusion and consented to participation. After written consent
was obtained, the interview was conducted followed by the administration of the mini-PROMS, both
activities lasting approximately 30 minutes. Ethical approval was sought and granted by Griffith
University's academic ethics committee reference no. 2021/679.
Data Analysis
The interviews were transcribed, helping the researchers become familiar with the content of the
conversations (Hashimov, 2015) and emergent coding was used to allow themes to emerge naturally
out of the data, without prejudice (Latendresse et al., 2020). The emergent codes were grouped and
regrouped to eventually generated five major themes (Connelly & Peltzer, 2016). Leximancer was
then used to establish the validity of the five themes (Morse, 2015).
Participants’ musicality was determined (basic, good or excellent) using the mini-PROMS and then
used to provide a finer grained analysis, allowing for the integration of the quantitative and qualitative
findings, using Leximancer. Participants were identified in the concept map (See Figure 1) by their
musicality description (the words in red, called nodes) to explore common themes by level of
musicality. Understanding critically how Leximancer was used in this study, it employed thematic
DRAFT
pág. 2364
analysis to extract concepts, with groups of concepts forming themes, from the interviews and then
present the prominence of themes (the coloured bubbles) through heatmapping – the most dominant
theme in red and down through the spectrum to purple. The relatedness of concepts and themes are
shown through spatial proximity, i.e., the closer a theme or a concept is to a node, the more significant
the theme is to that participant.
Findings
The case studies were delineated, categorised, and systematically analysed based on their musicality
(i.e., basic, good, excellent) as determined by the mini-PROMS. The final thematic analysis report was
written down based on the Clarke and Braun’s (2017, p. 297) concept as a method for identifying,
analysing and interpreting patterns of meaning (‘themes’) within qualitative and quantitative data.
Following a thematic analysis, five distinct themes emerged, offering a more comprehensive insight
into the musicality of the participants. The five themes are: Music in daily life; Musical experiences;
Musical cognition; Musical influences; and Musical skills.
Table 2 shows results from the mini-PROMs and the themes from the semi-structured interviews. Lu,
Jo and Pippin were assessed by the mini-PROMS has basic musicality, Maria with good musicality
and Richie has having excellent musicality. All participants listened to music every day and singing
their favourite songs but only Maria stated she would dance, clap or tap along to the music. Richie and
Maria stated that funerals, concerts and festivals were times and places where music played significant
roles and birthdays and religious events for Maria. All participants shared common and different
musical activities and experiences across diverse contexts. Musical cognition´s insights represented for
all the participants an involuntary approach activated in public places, but Pippin, Maria and Richie
mentioned they try to learn their favourite songs. Jo and Pippin were the only two participants who did
not have any type of music class or lessons in their youth age. Musical influences were associated
with family members and music artists for all the participants, although Lu, Jo and Pippin did not
mention friends were a potential musical influence. All participants stated they can identify music
timbre and possess abilities to recognise and distinguish rhythm, melody and harmony (piano chords
differences).
pág. 2364
analysis to extract concepts, with groups of concepts forming themes, from the interviews and then
present the prominence of themes (the coloured bubbles) through heatmapping – the most dominant
theme in red and down through the spectrum to purple. The relatedness of concepts and themes are
shown through spatial proximity, i.e., the closer a theme or a concept is to a node, the more significant
the theme is to that participant.
Findings
The case studies were delineated, categorised, and systematically analysed based on their musicality
(i.e., basic, good, excellent) as determined by the mini-PROMS. The final thematic analysis report was
written down based on the Clarke and Braun’s (2017, p. 297) concept as a method for identifying,
analysing and interpreting patterns of meaning (‘themes’) within qualitative and quantitative data.
Following a thematic analysis, five distinct themes emerged, offering a more comprehensive insight
into the musicality of the participants. The five themes are: Music in daily life; Musical experiences;
Musical cognition; Musical influences; and Musical skills.
Table 2 shows results from the mini-PROMs and the themes from the semi-structured interviews. Lu,
Jo and Pippin were assessed by the mini-PROMS has basic musicality, Maria with good musicality
and Richie has having excellent musicality. All participants listened to music every day and singing
their favourite songs but only Maria stated she would dance, clap or tap along to the music. Richie and
Maria stated that funerals, concerts and festivals were times and places where music played significant
roles and birthdays and religious events for Maria. All participants shared common and different
musical activities and experiences across diverse contexts. Musical cognition´s insights represented for
all the participants an involuntary approach activated in public places, but Pippin, Maria and Richie
mentioned they try to learn their favourite songs. Jo and Pippin were the only two participants who did
not have any type of music class or lessons in their youth age. Musical influences were associated
with family members and music artists for all the participants, although Lu, Jo and Pippin did not
mention friends were a potential musical influence. All participants stated they can identify music
timbre and possess abilities to recognise and distinguish rhythm, melody and harmony (piano chords
differences).
DRAFT
pág. 2365
Table 2. Mini-PROMS musicality scores and coding against the 5 themes
Participants Lu Jo Pippin Maria Richie
Mini-PROMS overall score 10.5 12 15.5 19.5 26.5
Musicality description Basic Basic Basic Good Excellent
Relevance of music to their
lives
Not very
important
Very
important Important Very
important
Extremely
important
Music in
daily life
Listening to
music daily ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔
Dancing ✔
Clapping or
tapping ✔
Singing
favourite
songs
✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔
Musical
experiences
Funerals ✔ ✔
Concerts and
festivals ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔
Birthdays ✔
Religious
events ✔
Musical
cognition
Public sites ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔
Unconscious
learning ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔
Song lyrics
and music
research
(conscious
learning)
✔ ✔ ✔
Music/theory
lessons ✔ ✔ ✔
Musical
influences
Family ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔
Friends ✔ ✔
Music ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔
pág. 2365
Table 2. Mini-PROMS musicality scores and coding against the 5 themes
Participants Lu Jo Pippin Maria Richie
Mini-PROMS overall score 10.5 12 15.5 19.5 26.5
Musicality description Basic Basic Basic Good Excellent
Relevance of music to their
lives
Not very
important
Very
important Important Very
important
Extremely
important
Music in
daily life
Listening to
music daily ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔
Dancing ✔
Clapping or
tapping ✔
Singing
favourite
songs
✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔
Musical
experiences
Funerals ✔ ✔
Concerts and
festivals ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔
Birthdays ✔
Religious
events ✔
Musical
cognition
Public sites ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔
Unconscious
learning ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔
Song lyrics
and music
research
(conscious
learning)
✔ ✔ ✔
Music/theory
lessons ✔ ✔ ✔
Musical
influences
Family ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔
Friends ✔ ✔
Music ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔
DRAFT
pág. 2366
artists/styles
Musical
skills
Timbre
recognition ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔
Musical
elements
recognition
(rhythm,
melody,
harmony)
✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔
Figure 1 shows a Leximancer concept map where the analysis merges participants musicality as
measured by the mini-PROMS and the thematic analysis of the interviews. See section 2.6 Data
analysis for an explanation of how to interpret the concept map. The theme, Music in daily life, was
the most prominent theme and due to its central placement in relation to the participant nodes shows
its relevance to all participants irrespective of level of musicality. The themes of Musical Influences
and Musical Skills were more significant for participants with basic musicality whilst Musical
Experiences and Music Cognition were more significant for participants with good and excellent
musicality. These themes are more fully explored in the following sections.
Figure 1. Leximancer concept map showing 5 themes as they relate to participants with basic, good
and excellent musicality
Note: The prominence of themes in Leximancer maps are heat mapped with the most prominent theme shown in red (Music
in daily life) through the spectrum to the least prominent theme shown in purple (Musical Skills)
pág. 2366
artists/styles
Musical
skills
Timbre
recognition ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔
Musical
elements
recognition
(rhythm,
melody,
harmony)
✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔
Figure 1 shows a Leximancer concept map where the analysis merges participants musicality as
measured by the mini-PROMS and the thematic analysis of the interviews. See section 2.6 Data
analysis for an explanation of how to interpret the concept map. The theme, Music in daily life, was
the most prominent theme and due to its central placement in relation to the participant nodes shows
its relevance to all participants irrespective of level of musicality. The themes of Musical Influences
and Musical Skills were more significant for participants with basic musicality whilst Musical
Experiences and Music Cognition were more significant for participants with good and excellent
musicality. These themes are more fully explored in the following sections.
Figure 1. Leximancer concept map showing 5 themes as they relate to participants with basic, good
and excellent musicality
Note: The prominence of themes in Leximancer maps are heat mapped with the most prominent theme shown in red (Music
in daily life) through the spectrum to the least prominent theme shown in purple (Musical Skills)
DRAFT
pág. 2367
Non-musicians with basic Musicality
Lu, Jo and Pippin achieved basic musicality levels based on their battery test results of 10.5, 12 and
15.5 respectively. These three participants had no prior exposure to formal music education and lacked
any proficiency in playing musical instruments or musical skills. Participants’ sense of musicality in
their daily life was manifested and evidenced in everyday behaviours such as listening to music to
improve their mood, general home activities, or just starting their daily routines by listening to their
favourite song/s on the radio.
Lu: In my life, at home, the radio is on all the time, and it’s easy listening. I could be washing
up an hour here and a song playing on the radio.
Jo: It helps with your emotions, and I have a wide variety of music I listen to.
Pippin: Sometimes I listen to music … it depends on my mood. Like, I don’t know if I feel
stressed or something like that, sometimes I listen to music to be happier.
The music in daily life theme captured a routine activity and the benefit of simultaneously listening to
music. For example, listening to the radio at home for general housekeeping activities purposes,
starting daily duties, and controlling and regulating their moods were meaningful musicality
behaviours in participants with Basic musicality levels.
The Musical influences of adult non-musicians were associated with different people and musical
artists that had the power to impact what participants liked to listen to the most in adulthood. Two
participants noted:
Jo: Billy Joel was a big influence, Guns and Roses um, Led Zeppelin, the Doors and I stand
out, so I find I get influenced easily from that, yeah.
Researcher: Do you feel that your music preferences were influenced by your parents or
someone else?
Jo: Definitely my parents.
Pippin: When I was with my mom, I used to listen to a specific kind of music or style of
music that affected me like now I’m listening to this kind of music. Maybe because of my
mom.
pág. 2367
Non-musicians with basic Musicality
Lu, Jo and Pippin achieved basic musicality levels based on their battery test results of 10.5, 12 and
15.5 respectively. These three participants had no prior exposure to formal music education and lacked
any proficiency in playing musical instruments or musical skills. Participants’ sense of musicality in
their daily life was manifested and evidenced in everyday behaviours such as listening to music to
improve their mood, general home activities, or just starting their daily routines by listening to their
favourite song/s on the radio.
Lu: In my life, at home, the radio is on all the time, and it’s easy listening. I could be washing
up an hour here and a song playing on the radio.
Jo: It helps with your emotions, and I have a wide variety of music I listen to.
Pippin: Sometimes I listen to music … it depends on my mood. Like, I don’t know if I feel
stressed or something like that, sometimes I listen to music to be happier.
The music in daily life theme captured a routine activity and the benefit of simultaneously listening to
music. For example, listening to the radio at home for general housekeeping activities purposes,
starting daily duties, and controlling and regulating their moods were meaningful musicality
behaviours in participants with Basic musicality levels.
The Musical influences of adult non-musicians were associated with different people and musical
artists that had the power to impact what participants liked to listen to the most in adulthood. Two
participants noted:
Jo: Billy Joel was a big influence, Guns and Roses um, Led Zeppelin, the Doors and I stand
out, so I find I get influenced easily from that, yeah.
Researcher: Do you feel that your music preferences were influenced by your parents or
someone else?
Jo: Definitely my parents.
Pippin: When I was with my mom, I used to listen to a specific kind of music or style of
music that affected me like now I’m listening to this kind of music. Maybe because of my
mom.
DRAFT
pág. 2368
Parents and music artists held the capacity to exert influence on individuals characterised by basic
musicality. This influence seemed to have a lasting impact on participants' musical development
throughout their lives, contributing to their musical preferences.
The absence of formal musical training among participants with basic musical proficiency did not
impede their self-reported ability to sing or reproduce music. Daily engagement with music was
associated with performative actions:
Lu: I sing when I can remember the lyrics of the song.
Jo: Sometimes yes, I sing and whistle my favourite music.
Pippin: Yeah, like in the bathroom when I’m showering myself, I think I like singing like not
like a professional.
It is clear that the most frequently self-reported innate abilities for musical performance included
singing and whistling. This is not surprising given the universality of singing, which is a natural
extension of speaking (Nicolai et al., 2013).
Non-Musician with Good Musicality Levels
Maria, a 40-year-old participant, demonstrated good levels of musicality, as indicated by her
musicality battery test score of 19.5. Distinguishing herself from prior participants, Maria received
formal music theory education during her high school years. Nevertheless, she self-reported the
inability to play any musical instrument and mentioned she does not possess musical competencies
such as composition or improvisation. The most dominant theme from her interview was around
musical experiences and she reflected upon all the meaningful memories that involved music in her
life to date. The following experience was noted:
Maria: The first one was when one relative passed away. It was with my grandfather. He
passed away, and he was always saying to us, ‘I don’t want to see all of you crying. I prefer
that you listen to music at the end of my days because you will remember me with that. That
musical experience affects my life because even if I’m very happy at the moment, if I listen
again to that song, or every time that I listen to that song, I’m gonna [sic] cry, for sure.
pág. 2368
Parents and music artists held the capacity to exert influence on individuals characterised by basic
musicality. This influence seemed to have a lasting impact on participants' musical development
throughout their lives, contributing to their musical preferences.
The absence of formal musical training among participants with basic musical proficiency did not
impede their self-reported ability to sing or reproduce music. Daily engagement with music was
associated with performative actions:
Lu: I sing when I can remember the lyrics of the song.
Jo: Sometimes yes, I sing and whistle my favourite music.
Pippin: Yeah, like in the bathroom when I’m showering myself, I think I like singing like not
like a professional.
It is clear that the most frequently self-reported innate abilities for musical performance included
singing and whistling. This is not surprising given the universality of singing, which is a natural
extension of speaking (Nicolai et al., 2013).
Non-Musician with Good Musicality Levels
Maria, a 40-year-old participant, demonstrated good levels of musicality, as indicated by her
musicality battery test score of 19.5. Distinguishing herself from prior participants, Maria received
formal music theory education during her high school years. Nevertheless, she self-reported the
inability to play any musical instrument and mentioned she does not possess musical competencies
such as composition or improvisation. The most dominant theme from her interview was around
musical experiences and she reflected upon all the meaningful memories that involved music in her
life to date. The following experience was noted:
Maria: The first one was when one relative passed away. It was with my grandfather. He
passed away, and he was always saying to us, ‘I don’t want to see all of you crying. I prefer
that you listen to music at the end of my days because you will remember me with that. That
musical experience affects my life because even if I’m very happy at the moment, if I listen
again to that song, or every time that I listen to that song, I’m gonna [sic] cry, for sure.
DRAFT
pág. 2369
Maria's musical experience possesses a remarkable capacity to elicit a range of emotions and evoke
ingrained memories. The lyrics seem to act as conduits, allowing her to connect with past experiences,
both joyful and melancholic. Another aspect of her musicality is her musical cognition.
Maria’s musical cognition is based on an integration of conscious and subconscious efforts to learn
song lyrics and melodies. Singing within informal settings played a crucial role in her musical
cognition but also constant repetition appears to help her subconscious musical cognition. For
example:
Maria: Sometimes I want to know exactly the lyrics meaning and I enjoy them. Sometimes I
sing the songs I have just in my mind, like this song … [Maria sings] but if I want to say to
you ‘oh, I listen to this song’ and I can tell you how it is.
Researcher: How did you learn your favourite song?
Maria: I mean, after listening to my favourite song over and over, I learned it unconsciously.
While memorising song lyrics may appear as a natural skill, this section discusses how Maria's
musical cognition approach to learning music is influenced by it. The participant's intention to master
song lyrics involved conscious cognition and subconscious absorption through song repetition.
Non-Musician with Excellent Musicality Levels
Richie, at 30, has shown exceptional musical aptitude by attaining a 26.5 overall score in his mini-
PROMS assessment. He did so despite lacking musical skills such as improvisation as self-reported
during his interview. Nevertheless, it is noteworthy that Richie is the sole participant who received
piano instruction during his formative years and completed music theory courses during high school.
The musical cognition theme represented a relevant musicality aspect in the life of this participant,
according to the Leximancer map (Figure 1). Concerning how this participant’s musical cognition is
actioned, the following interview quote is noted:
Researcher: How do you learn music and songs?
Richie: If there’s a song playing that I’ve never heard of, and I’d quite like it, then yeah, I’ll
get into it. Now I get on Google and find out what lyrics are and learn them and all that kind
of thing.
pág. 2369
Maria's musical experience possesses a remarkable capacity to elicit a range of emotions and evoke
ingrained memories. The lyrics seem to act as conduits, allowing her to connect with past experiences,
both joyful and melancholic. Another aspect of her musicality is her musical cognition.
Maria’s musical cognition is based on an integration of conscious and subconscious efforts to learn
song lyrics and melodies. Singing within informal settings played a crucial role in her musical
cognition but also constant repetition appears to help her subconscious musical cognition. For
example:
Maria: Sometimes I want to know exactly the lyrics meaning and I enjoy them. Sometimes I
sing the songs I have just in my mind, like this song … [Maria sings] but if I want to say to
you ‘oh, I listen to this song’ and I can tell you how it is.
Researcher: How did you learn your favourite song?
Maria: I mean, after listening to my favourite song over and over, I learned it unconsciously.
While memorising song lyrics may appear as a natural skill, this section discusses how Maria's
musical cognition approach to learning music is influenced by it. The participant's intention to master
song lyrics involved conscious cognition and subconscious absorption through song repetition.
Non-Musician with Excellent Musicality Levels
Richie, at 30, has shown exceptional musical aptitude by attaining a 26.5 overall score in his mini-
PROMS assessment. He did so despite lacking musical skills such as improvisation as self-reported
during his interview. Nevertheless, it is noteworthy that Richie is the sole participant who received
piano instruction during his formative years and completed music theory courses during high school.
The musical cognition theme represented a relevant musicality aspect in the life of this participant,
according to the Leximancer map (Figure 1). Concerning how this participant’s musical cognition is
actioned, the following interview quote is noted:
Researcher: How do you learn music and songs?
Richie: If there’s a song playing that I’ve never heard of, and I’d quite like it, then yeah, I’ll
get into it. Now I get on Google and find out what lyrics are and learn them and all that kind
of thing.
DRAFT
pág. 2370
This participant's engagement with musical cognition is characterised by a sincere endeavour to
explore music and lyrics on the internet. This deliberate initiative can be regarded as a behaviour that
holds the potential to enhance the musical acumen of the participant. The life of this participant has
been enriched by additional musical experiences, characterised by significant interactions during both
concerts and funerals. These musical encounters are described by the participant in the following
quotation:
Richie: I went to a concert. I can’t remember who was playing. It gave me like an
idea of what a concert is like kind of thing’.
Researcher: Did that experience impact your musicality?
Richie: Yeah, absolutely. So, like, before I went to that concert, there were so many bands there
that I didn’t even know existed. What’s the word? Put me in touch with the less mainstream
stuff. So, I guess now I know that there’s no mainstream stuff out there. It’s good to actually go
through iTunes and search up some random bands and artists and all that kind of thing.
Attending musical concerts and being exposed to music during funerals represent informal contexts
that appear to have influenced Richie’s musical development. These prior musical experiences lived in
those informal environments may have also provided opportunities for exploring and discovering new
music and music artists through virtual platforms.
DISCUSSION
This section is organised into answering critically two research questions: what musical socio-cultural
experiences are discernible in adult non-musicians and how could these experiences have affected
participants’ musicality levels? Existing academic literature was also linked to confirm findings of the
present study.
What musical socio-cultural experiences are discernible in adult non-musicians?
The study's findings support the notion of musicality as an innate human capability in adulthood, even
among non-musicians. Various musical experiences occurred across diverse non-formal contexts.
These findings align with the work of Kahn et al. (2021), which highlighted that engaging in daily
music-related activities, such as listening to music during housekeeping, is associated with mood
improvement and stress reduction (Beck et al., 2006). This study’s empirical evidence also pointed
pág. 2370
This participant's engagement with musical cognition is characterised by a sincere endeavour to
explore music and lyrics on the internet. This deliberate initiative can be regarded as a behaviour that
holds the potential to enhance the musical acumen of the participant. The life of this participant has
been enriched by additional musical experiences, characterised by significant interactions during both
concerts and funerals. These musical encounters are described by the participant in the following
quotation:
Richie: I went to a concert. I can’t remember who was playing. It gave me like an
idea of what a concert is like kind of thing’.
Researcher: Did that experience impact your musicality?
Richie: Yeah, absolutely. So, like, before I went to that concert, there were so many bands there
that I didn’t even know existed. What’s the word? Put me in touch with the less mainstream
stuff. So, I guess now I know that there’s no mainstream stuff out there. It’s good to actually go
through iTunes and search up some random bands and artists and all that kind of thing.
Attending musical concerts and being exposed to music during funerals represent informal contexts
that appear to have influenced Richie’s musical development. These prior musical experiences lived in
those informal environments may have also provided opportunities for exploring and discovering new
music and music artists through virtual platforms.
DISCUSSION
This section is organised into answering critically two research questions: what musical socio-cultural
experiences are discernible in adult non-musicians and how could these experiences have affected
participants’ musicality levels? Existing academic literature was also linked to confirm findings of the
present study.
What musical socio-cultural experiences are discernible in adult non-musicians?
The study's findings support the notion of musicality as an innate human capability in adulthood, even
among non-musicians. Various musical experiences occurred across diverse non-formal contexts.
These findings align with the work of Kahn et al. (2021), which highlighted that engaging in daily
music-related activities, such as listening to music during housekeeping, is associated with mood
improvement and stress reduction (Beck et al., 2006). This study’s empirical evidence also pointed
DRAFT
pág. 2371
those non-formal contexts and socio-cultural experiences, like concerts and funerals, can foster higher
musicality levels by providing rich experiences that evoke positive memories and cultivate an
appreciation for musical artists, which is consistent with Burland and Pitts, (2016) work. Conversely
to Baxter-Moore and Kitts (2016), negative musical experiences such as funerals, may lead to
unpleasant memories that individuals seek to avoid. Liturgies are also a socio-cultural experience
noted in the findings and Calvert’s (2020) scholarly work claims that religious music experience has
the power to influence the assistants’ musicality through singing and learning the style of the worship.
Participants' musical experiences, both enjoyable and displeasing, have been encapsulated in concerts
and music festivals which might be seen as socio cultural practices as well. Following Burland and
Pitts (2016), positive musical experiences were observed when participants attended live music events
because they fostered social connections and enjoyment. This previous academic claim is consistent
with the findings of Jensenius et al. (2009), because participants might have perceived pleasant music
concerts as occasions where live music serves to establish a connection between the audience and
performers, fostering the expression of personal emotions and appreciation.
The various socio-cultural activities identified likely allowed participants to cultivate their musicality
levels through both active and passive engagement with their favourite music in private spaces,
ceremonies, concerts, sentimental celebrations, festivals, religious practices, funerals, and public
places. This array of informal contexts, coupled with personal positive and negative experiences,
musical influences, and an innate cognitive sense, has the potential to nurture a natural musical skill
set in participants, contributing to a musicality level development.
How could musical experiences have affected participants’ musicality levels?
In this study, all participants had a minimum degree of basic musicality affected by their musical
experiences through auditory and performative skills such as singing. This occurrence is scientifically
elucidated by scholars who assert that the development of musicality levels is influenced significantly
by a combination of various factors noted at the outset of this academic discussion, including
cognition and musical influences.
The steady musicality levels observed in adult non-musicians in this study are consistent with
Hallam’s (2017) findings of musical experiences, which suggest that musical cognition is an inherent
pág. 2371
those non-formal contexts and socio-cultural experiences, like concerts and funerals, can foster higher
musicality levels by providing rich experiences that evoke positive memories and cultivate an
appreciation for musical artists, which is consistent with Burland and Pitts, (2016) work. Conversely
to Baxter-Moore and Kitts (2016), negative musical experiences such as funerals, may lead to
unpleasant memories that individuals seek to avoid. Liturgies are also a socio-cultural experience
noted in the findings and Calvert’s (2020) scholarly work claims that religious music experience has
the power to influence the assistants’ musicality through singing and learning the style of the worship.
Participants' musical experiences, both enjoyable and displeasing, have been encapsulated in concerts
and music festivals which might be seen as socio cultural practices as well. Following Burland and
Pitts (2016), positive musical experiences were observed when participants attended live music events
because they fostered social connections and enjoyment. This previous academic claim is consistent
with the findings of Jensenius et al. (2009), because participants might have perceived pleasant music
concerts as occasions where live music serves to establish a connection between the audience and
performers, fostering the expression of personal emotions and appreciation.
The various socio-cultural activities identified likely allowed participants to cultivate their musicality
levels through both active and passive engagement with their favourite music in private spaces,
ceremonies, concerts, sentimental celebrations, festivals, religious practices, funerals, and public
places. This array of informal contexts, coupled with personal positive and negative experiences,
musical influences, and an innate cognitive sense, has the potential to nurture a natural musical skill
set in participants, contributing to a musicality level development.
How could musical experiences have affected participants’ musicality levels?
In this study, all participants had a minimum degree of basic musicality affected by their musical
experiences through auditory and performative skills such as singing. This occurrence is scientifically
elucidated by scholars who assert that the development of musicality levels is influenced significantly
by a combination of various factors noted at the outset of this academic discussion, including
cognition and musical influences.
The steady musicality levels observed in adult non-musicians in this study are consistent with
Hallam’s (2017) findings of musical experiences, which suggest that musical cognition is an inherent
DRAFT
pág. 2372
and universal human trait. This inherent capability explains how individuals were able to recall and
learn musical experiences, fostering the development of musicality and the ability to engage with
music, whether consciously or subconsciously. On the other hand, Cate and Spierings (2019) noted
that musicality not only stems from an innate capacity for musical cognition but is also mediated by
natural auditory skills. These skills enable individuals to perceive and synthesize rhythms, melodies,
lyrics, and harmonies into cohesive musical pieces. This concept of musical skills aligns with the
natural musical abilities (e.g., singing) observed in the participants of this study, which likely enabled
them to express their musicality in performative terms.
Expanding the musicality discussion, Corrigall and Schellenberg (2015) suggest that musical levels
development and cognition may be correlated and influenced by factors such as exposure frequency to
musical contexts and activities, along with general intelligence levels (e.g., Schellenberg, 2011).
Although formal settings and educative experiences are not mandatory for musicality levels
development (Green, 2017), participants with some degree of musical instruction or experience in
formal musical settings such as Richie, tended to exhibit higher musicality levels, likely approaching
the battery test from an implied theoretical standpoint (Maury and Rickard, 2016).
Another variable that contributed to a level development of musicality is musical influences. Cohen
(1990) emphasizes that musical influences stem from factors like personal interests, social circles,
family, and cultural behaviors, contributing to the formation of musical identities and individual
preferences boosting a level of musicality. Family members played a significant role in facilitating
musical engagement during youth but also, they represent a connection to be exposed to musical
stimuli which can significatively develop musical experiences and musicality levels from early age
(Zdzinski, 2014).
Considering the previous academics' claims, participants in the study were observed to possess a level
of musicality which was exposed through the musicality test regardless of the absence of formal
musical education experiences. Reported musical skills in this study such as singing and whistling are
what enable participants to exert control over pitch and note durations (Nicolai et al., 2013, p. 143).
Muntanyola-Saura's (2016) confirmed this study’s findings asserting that clapping and dancing
indicate how bodily movements have the potential to enhance participants' rhythmic sense, as healthy
pág. 2372
and universal human trait. This inherent capability explains how individuals were able to recall and
learn musical experiences, fostering the development of musicality and the ability to engage with
music, whether consciously or subconsciously. On the other hand, Cate and Spierings (2019) noted
that musicality not only stems from an innate capacity for musical cognition but is also mediated by
natural auditory skills. These skills enable individuals to perceive and synthesize rhythms, melodies,
lyrics, and harmonies into cohesive musical pieces. This concept of musical skills aligns with the
natural musical abilities (e.g., singing) observed in the participants of this study, which likely enabled
them to express their musicality in performative terms.
Expanding the musicality discussion, Corrigall and Schellenberg (2015) suggest that musical levels
development and cognition may be correlated and influenced by factors such as exposure frequency to
musical contexts and activities, along with general intelligence levels (e.g., Schellenberg, 2011).
Although formal settings and educative experiences are not mandatory for musicality levels
development (Green, 2017), participants with some degree of musical instruction or experience in
formal musical settings such as Richie, tended to exhibit higher musicality levels, likely approaching
the battery test from an implied theoretical standpoint (Maury and Rickard, 2016).
Another variable that contributed to a level development of musicality is musical influences. Cohen
(1990) emphasizes that musical influences stem from factors like personal interests, social circles,
family, and cultural behaviors, contributing to the formation of musical identities and individual
preferences boosting a level of musicality. Family members played a significant role in facilitating
musical engagement during youth but also, they represent a connection to be exposed to musical
stimuli which can significatively develop musical experiences and musicality levels from early age
(Zdzinski, 2014).
Considering the previous academics' claims, participants in the study were observed to possess a level
of musicality which was exposed through the musicality test regardless of the absence of formal
musical education experiences. Reported musical skills in this study such as singing and whistling are
what enable participants to exert control over pitch and note durations (Nicolai et al., 2013, p. 143).
Muntanyola-Saura's (2016) confirmed this study’s findings asserting that clapping and dancing
indicate how bodily movements have the potential to enhance participants' rhythmic sense, as healthy
DRAFT
pág. 2373
musicality levels can be demonstrated through the memorization and coordination of rhythmic
patterns.
According to Janata and Grafton (2003), the levels of musicality observed in the participant group
were evidenced by the musicality test. Even without musical expertise, participants achieved standard
and non-deficient levels of musicality, showcasing inherent natural aural skills such as recognition,
repetition, and distinction. Nevertheless, Porflitt and Díaz (2019) claim that earlier exposure to music
classes and learning to play a musical instrument are elements that may enable participants to attain a
higher level of musical proficiency. In simpler terms, it is clear how participants such as Richie who
had premature exposure to musical experiences and underwent early musical cognitive processes
achieved superior musicality scores due to the enhancement of executive mechanisms and functions,
including working memory, monitoring, and recognition, which explains how he got facilitated
responses to melodies, rhythms, and tune perception (Diamond, 2013).
Limitations, practical implications and directions for future research
This research study presents two potential limitations that are worth highlighting. Relying on self-
reported data for assessing musical skills introduces the potential for bias and inaccuracies obtained
from participants’ perceptions (Krishna et al.,2010), although information obtained interviewing
participants was confirmed twice as a strategy to gain more accurate responses (Yin, 2018). The
study's generalisability to a broader population remains uncertain, as it predominantly focuses on a
specifically reduced pool of participants. Contrasting the findings and evidence presented in this
manuscript with existing literature served as a research strategy aimed at enhancing the reliability of
the theoretical constructs and conclusions.
The practical significance and real-world impact of this study lie in promoting musical activities that
enhance auditory abilities and foster robust musicality among children, juveniles and adults. This can
be achieved by engaging them with basic musicality in activities such as karaoke, dancing, attending
concerts, or participating in music-centered events. Exercises focused on body rhythm can further
nurture their inner sense of music in adulthood. From a cognitive standpoint, and acknowledging that
individuals, even if not musicians, possess basic musicality, music teachers can leverage this inherent
pág. 2373
musicality levels can be demonstrated through the memorization and coordination of rhythmic
patterns.
According to Janata and Grafton (2003), the levels of musicality observed in the participant group
were evidenced by the musicality test. Even without musical expertise, participants achieved standard
and non-deficient levels of musicality, showcasing inherent natural aural skills such as recognition,
repetition, and distinction. Nevertheless, Porflitt and Díaz (2019) claim that earlier exposure to music
classes and learning to play a musical instrument are elements that may enable participants to attain a
higher level of musical proficiency. In simpler terms, it is clear how participants such as Richie who
had premature exposure to musical experiences and underwent early musical cognitive processes
achieved superior musicality scores due to the enhancement of executive mechanisms and functions,
including working memory, monitoring, and recognition, which explains how he got facilitated
responses to melodies, rhythms, and tune perception (Diamond, 2013).
Limitations, practical implications and directions for future research
This research study presents two potential limitations that are worth highlighting. Relying on self-
reported data for assessing musical skills introduces the potential for bias and inaccuracies obtained
from participants’ perceptions (Krishna et al.,2010), although information obtained interviewing
participants was confirmed twice as a strategy to gain more accurate responses (Yin, 2018). The
study's generalisability to a broader population remains uncertain, as it predominantly focuses on a
specifically reduced pool of participants. Contrasting the findings and evidence presented in this
manuscript with existing literature served as a research strategy aimed at enhancing the reliability of
the theoretical constructs and conclusions.
The practical significance and real-world impact of this study lie in promoting musical activities that
enhance auditory abilities and foster robust musicality among children, juveniles and adults. This can
be achieved by engaging them with basic musicality in activities such as karaoke, dancing, attending
concerts, or participating in music-centered events. Exercises focused on body rhythm can further
nurture their inner sense of music in adulthood. From a cognitive standpoint, and acknowledging that
individuals, even if not musicians, possess basic musicality, music teachers can leverage this inherent
DRAFT
pág. 2374
ability to integrate musical activities into various knowledge domains, helping students learn different
subjects and topics through singing.
The study provides insights that contribute to an enhanced understanding of the musicality among
adult non-musicians, in contrast to prior studies which primarily concentrated on children (Forrester &
Borthwick-Hunter, 2015) and adolescents (Gordon, 1970; Karma, 1976). While there is a discernible
understanding of how musical preferences evolve in older adults (Gibbons, 1977) and the advantages
of engaging in musical activities (Varvarigou et al., 2011), future research may consider evaluating
and appraising the musical aptitude of elderly non-musicians. Therefore, a more comprehensive mixed
methods approach, specifically examining correlations of socio-cultural experiences and musicality
levels among elderly non-musicians, could yield deeper insights into this phenomenon across the
entire lifespan. Research on the musicality of elderly non-musicians is also expected to uncover new
themes and concepts, shedding light on unforeseen aspects of musicality.
CONCLUSIONS
The conclusions of this exploratory study aim to contribute to a new theory building, suggesting that
the five distinct themes identified from the participants, described and encapsulated essential
components that characterised healthy musicality levels in adult non-musicians.
Music in daily life theme uncovered conclusive evidence to considering that the natural musicality
sense of adult non-musicians not solely permits them to react to music but to obtain benefits out of it
such as balancing up emotions and mood regulation.
Another conclusion related to musicality in adulthood highlights how socio-cultural experiences
involving music can evoke unique memories. Specifically, music has incidental effects on the
listener’s musicality, helping to create connections with places and romantic relationships (Istvandity,
2019). This was evidenced in the theme of musical experiences.
The participants’ musical cognition appeared to be mediated by an autonomous memory process
requiring no deliberate effort. This conclusion is supported by the observation that musical elements
such as tunes, melodic lines, and rhythm sequences were learned through repetition, a process known
to enhance memory (Cheah et al., 2022). Additionally, participants like Maria and Richie, who
pág. 2374
ability to integrate musical activities into various knowledge domains, helping students learn different
subjects and topics through singing.
The study provides insights that contribute to an enhanced understanding of the musicality among
adult non-musicians, in contrast to prior studies which primarily concentrated on children (Forrester &
Borthwick-Hunter, 2015) and adolescents (Gordon, 1970; Karma, 1976). While there is a discernible
understanding of how musical preferences evolve in older adults (Gibbons, 1977) and the advantages
of engaging in musical activities (Varvarigou et al., 2011), future research may consider evaluating
and appraising the musical aptitude of elderly non-musicians. Therefore, a more comprehensive mixed
methods approach, specifically examining correlations of socio-cultural experiences and musicality
levels among elderly non-musicians, could yield deeper insights into this phenomenon across the
entire lifespan. Research on the musicality of elderly non-musicians is also expected to uncover new
themes and concepts, shedding light on unforeseen aspects of musicality.
CONCLUSIONS
The conclusions of this exploratory study aim to contribute to a new theory building, suggesting that
the five distinct themes identified from the participants, described and encapsulated essential
components that characterised healthy musicality levels in adult non-musicians.
Music in daily life theme uncovered conclusive evidence to considering that the natural musicality
sense of adult non-musicians not solely permits them to react to music but to obtain benefits out of it
such as balancing up emotions and mood regulation.
Another conclusion related to musicality in adulthood highlights how socio-cultural experiences
involving music can evoke unique memories. Specifically, music has incidental effects on the
listener’s musicality, helping to create connections with places and romantic relationships (Istvandity,
2019). This was evidenced in the theme of musical experiences.
The participants’ musical cognition appeared to be mediated by an autonomous memory process
requiring no deliberate effort. This conclusion is supported by the observation that musical elements
such as tunes, melodic lines, and rhythm sequences were learned through repetition, a process known
to enhance memory (Cheah et al., 2022). Additionally, participants like Maria and Richie, who
DRAFT
pág. 2375
showed an active interest in learning and exploring their favourite music, appeared to achieve higher
levels of musicality.
Family, friends and musical artists were considered by participants the primary musical influences
that somehow shaped their musical preferences approaching them explore their musical sense.
Listening to what others like, directly or indirectly, seems to build interactions with music that were
vital for development of musicality from childhood across participants’ life span.
It is also important to conclude that the absence of musicianship in the participants did not represent a
lack of understanding of the battery test or deficient development musicality levels. Instead, Musical
Skills in the adulthood of participants were evident being singing the most consistent approach to
execute music elements such as rhythms and melodies of their favourite songs.
In conclusion, the empirical evidence presented in this study suggests that the five themes uncovered
may be considered key components of adult non-musicians' musicality, as each theme encompassed a
variety of elements that contributed to understanding its development. This phenomenon was naturally
manifested in the participants’ lives. Therefore, the assertion that basic, good and excellent musicality
levels can be maintained in adulthood through exposure to music in diverse socio-cultural contexts
since childhood (Welch, 1998) may be considered a valid hypothesis.
BIBLIOGRAPHIC REFERENCES
Baxter-Moore, N., & Kitts, T. M. (2016). The Live Concert Experience: An Introduction. Rock Music
Studies, 3(1), 1–4. https://doi.org/10.1080/19401159.2015.1131923
Beck, R., J., Gottfried, T., L., Hall, D., J., Cisler, C., A., & Bozeman, K., W. (2006). Supporting the
Health of College Solo Singers: The Relationship of Positive Emotions and Stress to Changes
in Salivary IgA and Cortisol during Singing. Journal for Learning through the Arts, 2(1).
https://doi.org/10.21977/D92110079
Bonneville-Roussy, A., & Eerola, T. (2018). Age trends in musical preferences in adulthood: 3.
Perceived musical attributes as intrinsic determinants of preferences. Musicae Scientiae, 22(3),
394-414.
Burland, K., & Pitts, S. (Eds.). (2016). Coughing and Clapping: Investigating Audience Experience.
Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315574455
pág. 2375
showed an active interest in learning and exploring their favourite music, appeared to achieve higher
levels of musicality.
Family, friends and musical artists were considered by participants the primary musical influences
that somehow shaped their musical preferences approaching them explore their musical sense.
Listening to what others like, directly or indirectly, seems to build interactions with music that were
vital for development of musicality from childhood across participants’ life span.
It is also important to conclude that the absence of musicianship in the participants did not represent a
lack of understanding of the battery test or deficient development musicality levels. Instead, Musical
Skills in the adulthood of participants were evident being singing the most consistent approach to
execute music elements such as rhythms and melodies of their favourite songs.
In conclusion, the empirical evidence presented in this study suggests that the five themes uncovered
may be considered key components of adult non-musicians' musicality, as each theme encompassed a
variety of elements that contributed to understanding its development. This phenomenon was naturally
manifested in the participants’ lives. Therefore, the assertion that basic, good and excellent musicality
levels can be maintained in adulthood through exposure to music in diverse socio-cultural contexts
since childhood (Welch, 1998) may be considered a valid hypothesis.
BIBLIOGRAPHIC REFERENCES
Baxter-Moore, N., & Kitts, T. M. (2016). The Live Concert Experience: An Introduction. Rock Music
Studies, 3(1), 1–4. https://doi.org/10.1080/19401159.2015.1131923
Beck, R., J., Gottfried, T., L., Hall, D., J., Cisler, C., A., & Bozeman, K., W. (2006). Supporting the
Health of College Solo Singers: The Relationship of Positive Emotions and Stress to Changes
in Salivary IgA and Cortisol during Singing. Journal for Learning through the Arts, 2(1).
https://doi.org/10.21977/D92110079
Bonneville-Roussy, A., & Eerola, T. (2018). Age trends in musical preferences in adulthood: 3.
Perceived musical attributes as intrinsic determinants of preferences. Musicae Scientiae, 22(3),
394-414.
Burland, K., & Pitts, S. (Eds.). (2016). Coughing and Clapping: Investigating Audience Experience.
Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315574455
DRAFT
pág. 2376
Carlow, R. (2015). Book Review: Edgard, Willems. Psychological Foundations of Music Education.
Journal of Historical Research in Music Education, 37(1), 94–99.
https://doi.org/10.1177/1536600615608470
Calvert, D. (2020). Liturgical Speech Acts in Congregational Singing. The Hymn, 71(2), 41–47.
Clarke, V., & Braun, V. (2017). Thematic analysis. The Journal of Positive Psychology, 12(3), 297–
298. https://doi.org/10.1080/17439760.2016.1262613
Cate, C., & Spierings, M. (2019). Rules, rhythm and grouping: auditory pattern perception by birds.
Animal Behaviour, 151, 249-257.
Cohen, S. (1990). The Hidden Musicians: Music-Making in an English Town. By Ruth Finnegan.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989. 378 pp. Popular Music, 9(3), 384–385.
https://doi.org/10.1017/S0261143000004207
Colwell, R., & Davidson, L. (1996). Musical Intelligence and the Benefits of Music Education. NASSP
Bulletin, 80(583), 55–64. https://doi.org/10.1177/019263659608058310
Connelly, Lynne M., and Jill N. Peltzer. "Underdeveloped themes in qualitative research: Relationship
with interviews and analysis." Clinical nurse specialist 30.1 (2016): 52-57.
Cheah, Y., Wong, H. K., Spitzer, M., & Coutinho, E. (2022). Background Music and Cognitive Task
Performance: A Systematic Review of Task, Music, and Population Impact. Music & Science,
5. https://doi.org/10.1177/20592043221134392
Corrigall, K. A., & Schellenberg, E. G. (2015). Music cognition in childhood. In G. E. McPherson
(Ed.), The Child as Musician (pp. 81–101). Oxford University Press.
https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198744443.003.0005
Creswell, J. W. (2014). Research Design: Qualitative, Quantitative, and Mixed Methods Approaches.
India: SAGE Publications.
Cross, I., & Morley, I. (2010). The evolution of music: Theories, definitions and the nature of the
evidence. In Communicative Musicality (pp. 61–82).
Diamond, A. (2013). Executive Functions. Annual Review of Psychology, 64, 135–168.
Etikan, I., Musa, S. A., & Alkassim, R. S. (2016). Comparison of convenience sampling and purposive
sampling. American journal of theoretical and applied statistics, 5(1), 1-4.
pág. 2376
Carlow, R. (2015). Book Review: Edgard, Willems. Psychological Foundations of Music Education.
Journal of Historical Research in Music Education, 37(1), 94–99.
https://doi.org/10.1177/1536600615608470
Calvert, D. (2020). Liturgical Speech Acts in Congregational Singing. The Hymn, 71(2), 41–47.
Clarke, V., & Braun, V. (2017). Thematic analysis. The Journal of Positive Psychology, 12(3), 297–
298. https://doi.org/10.1080/17439760.2016.1262613
Cate, C., & Spierings, M. (2019). Rules, rhythm and grouping: auditory pattern perception by birds.
Animal Behaviour, 151, 249-257.
Cohen, S. (1990). The Hidden Musicians: Music-Making in an English Town. By Ruth Finnegan.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989. 378 pp. Popular Music, 9(3), 384–385.
https://doi.org/10.1017/S0261143000004207
Colwell, R., & Davidson, L. (1996). Musical Intelligence and the Benefits of Music Education. NASSP
Bulletin, 80(583), 55–64. https://doi.org/10.1177/019263659608058310
Connelly, Lynne M., and Jill N. Peltzer. "Underdeveloped themes in qualitative research: Relationship
with interviews and analysis." Clinical nurse specialist 30.1 (2016): 52-57.
Cheah, Y., Wong, H. K., Spitzer, M., & Coutinho, E. (2022). Background Music and Cognitive Task
Performance: A Systematic Review of Task, Music, and Population Impact. Music & Science,
5. https://doi.org/10.1177/20592043221134392
Corrigall, K. A., & Schellenberg, E. G. (2015). Music cognition in childhood. In G. E. McPherson
(Ed.), The Child as Musician (pp. 81–101). Oxford University Press.
https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780198744443.003.0005
Creswell, J. W. (2014). Research Design: Qualitative, Quantitative, and Mixed Methods Approaches.
India: SAGE Publications.
Cross, I., & Morley, I. (2010). The evolution of music: Theories, definitions and the nature of the
evidence. In Communicative Musicality (pp. 61–82).
Diamond, A. (2013). Executive Functions. Annual Review of Psychology, 64, 135–168.
Etikan, I., Musa, S. A., & Alkassim, R. S. (2016). Comparison of convenience sampling and purposive
sampling. American journal of theoretical and applied statistics, 5(1), 1-4.
DRAFT
pág. 2377
Fitch, W. T. (2015). Four principles of bio-musicology. Philosophical Transactions. Biological
Sciences, 370(1664), 20140091–24. https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2014.0091
Forrester, M. A., & Borthwick-Hunter, E. (2015). Understanding the Development of Musicality:
Contributions From Longitudinal Studies. Psychomusicology, 25(2), 93–102.
https://doi.org/10.1037/pmu0000086
Gaser, C., & Schlaug, G. (2003). Brain Structures Differ between Musicians and Non-Musicians. The
Journal of Neuroscience, 23(27), 9240–9245.
Gaston, E. T. (1944). A Test of Musicality: Manual of Directions. Streep Music Company.
Gibbons, A. C. (1977). Popular music preferences of elderly people. Journal of music therapy, 14(4),
180-189.
Green, L. (2017). Music, informal learning and the school: A new classroom pedagogy. Routledge.
Gordon, E. (1970). First-Year Results of a Five-Year Longitudinal Study of the Musical Achievement
of Culturally Disadvantaged Students. Journal of Research in Music Education, 18(3), 195–
213. https://doi.org/10.2307/3344459
Hallam, S. (2015). The power of music. International Music Education Research Centre (iMERC)
Press.
Hallam, S. (2017). Musical Identity, Learning, and Teaching. In Handbook of Musical Identities (Vol.
1–Book, Section). Oxford University Press.
Hansen, D., & Milligan, S. A. (2012). Aural skills: At the juncture of research in early reading and
music literacy. Music Educators Journal, 99(2), 75-80.
Henson, R. A., & Wyke, M. A. (1982). The Performance of Professional Musicians on the Seashore
Measures of Musical Talent: An Unexpected Finding. Cortex, 18(1), 153–157.
https://doi.org/10.1016/S0010-9452(82)80026-9
Hashimov, E. (2015). Qualitative Data Analysis: A Methods Sourcebook and The Coding Manual for
Qualitative Researchers: Matthew B. Miles, A. Michael Huberman, and Johnny Saldaña.
Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE, 2014. 381 pp. Johnny Saldaña. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE,
2013. 303 pp.
pág. 2377
Fitch, W. T. (2015). Four principles of bio-musicology. Philosophical Transactions. Biological
Sciences, 370(1664), 20140091–24. https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2014.0091
Forrester, M. A., & Borthwick-Hunter, E. (2015). Understanding the Development of Musicality:
Contributions From Longitudinal Studies. Psychomusicology, 25(2), 93–102.
https://doi.org/10.1037/pmu0000086
Gaser, C., & Schlaug, G. (2003). Brain Structures Differ between Musicians and Non-Musicians. The
Journal of Neuroscience, 23(27), 9240–9245.
Gaston, E. T. (1944). A Test of Musicality: Manual of Directions. Streep Music Company.
Gibbons, A. C. (1977). Popular music preferences of elderly people. Journal of music therapy, 14(4),
180-189.
Green, L. (2017). Music, informal learning and the school: A new classroom pedagogy. Routledge.
Gordon, E. (1970). First-Year Results of a Five-Year Longitudinal Study of the Musical Achievement
of Culturally Disadvantaged Students. Journal of Research in Music Education, 18(3), 195–
213. https://doi.org/10.2307/3344459
Hallam, S. (2015). The power of music. International Music Education Research Centre (iMERC)
Press.
Hallam, S. (2017). Musical Identity, Learning, and Teaching. In Handbook of Musical Identities (Vol.
1–Book, Section). Oxford University Press.
Hansen, D., & Milligan, S. A. (2012). Aural skills: At the juncture of research in early reading and
music literacy. Music Educators Journal, 99(2), 75-80.
Henson, R. A., & Wyke, M. A. (1982). The Performance of Professional Musicians on the Seashore
Measures of Musical Talent: An Unexpected Finding. Cortex, 18(1), 153–157.
https://doi.org/10.1016/S0010-9452(82)80026-9
Hashimov, E. (2015). Qualitative Data Analysis: A Methods Sourcebook and The Coding Manual for
Qualitative Researchers: Matthew B. Miles, A. Michael Huberman, and Johnny Saldaña.
Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE, 2014. 381 pp. Johnny Saldaña. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE,
2013. 303 pp.
DRAFT
pág. 2378
Hoshino, E. (2017). Hallam, Susan, Ian Cross, and Michael Thaut, eds. 2009. The Oxford Handbook
of Music Psychology. Evolutionary Studies in Imaginative Culture, 1(1), 233–233.
https://doi.org/10.26613/esic.1.1.33
Istvandity L. (2019) The lifetime soundtrack: Music and autobiographical memory. Equinox
Publishing Ltd.
Jaffurs, S. (2004). Developing musicality.
Jensenius, A., Wanderley, M., Godøy, R., & Leman, M. (2009). Musical Gestures:
Concepts and methods in research. Musical Gestures: Sound, Movement, and Meaning.
https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203863411
Jones, J. D. (2018). Scaffolding the Dalcroze Approach. General Music Today, 32(1), 5–12.
https://doi.org/10.1177/1048371318770821
Khalass, N., Zarnomitrou, G., Haque, K. I., Salmi, S., Maulini, S., Linkermann, T., Ziliotto Salamon,
N., Balint, J. T., Bidarra, R., Gentile, M., Allegra, M., & Söbke, H. (2019). Musicality: A
Game to Improve Musical Perception. Lecture Notes in Computer Science, Journal Article.
Kahn, J. H., Ladd, K., Feltner-Williams, D. A., Martin, A. M., & White, B. L. (2021). Regulating
sadness: Response-independent and response-dependent benefits of listening to music.
Psychology of Music, 03057356211048545.
Krishna, R., Maithreyi, R., & Surapaneni, K. M. (2010). Research bias: a review for medical students.
J Clin Diagn Res, 4(2), 2320-2324.
Karma, K. & Helsinki Univ. (Finland). Inst. of Education. (1976). The Ability to Structure Acoustic
Material as a Measure of Musical Aptitude: 3, Theoretical Refinements. Research Bulletin.
Law, L. N. C., & Zentner, M. (2012). Assessing Musical Abilities Objectively: DRAFT
129 Construction and Validation of the Profile of Music Perception Skills. PLoS ONE, 7(12), e52508.
https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0052508
Maury, S., & Rickard, N. (2016). Wellbeing in the Classroom: How an Evolutionary Perspective on
Human Musicality Can Inform Music Education. Australian Journal of Music Education,
50(1), 3–15.
pág. 2378
Hoshino, E. (2017). Hallam, Susan, Ian Cross, and Michael Thaut, eds. 2009. The Oxford Handbook
of Music Psychology. Evolutionary Studies in Imaginative Culture, 1(1), 233–233.
https://doi.org/10.26613/esic.1.1.33
Istvandity L. (2019) The lifetime soundtrack: Music and autobiographical memory. Equinox
Publishing Ltd.
Jaffurs, S. (2004). Developing musicality.
Jensenius, A., Wanderley, M., Godøy, R., & Leman, M. (2009). Musical Gestures:
Concepts and methods in research. Musical Gestures: Sound, Movement, and Meaning.
https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203863411
Jones, J. D. (2018). Scaffolding the Dalcroze Approach. General Music Today, 32(1), 5–12.
https://doi.org/10.1177/1048371318770821
Khalass, N., Zarnomitrou, G., Haque, K. I., Salmi, S., Maulini, S., Linkermann, T., Ziliotto Salamon,
N., Balint, J. T., Bidarra, R., Gentile, M., Allegra, M., & Söbke, H. (2019). Musicality: A
Game to Improve Musical Perception. Lecture Notes in Computer Science, Journal Article.
Kahn, J. H., Ladd, K., Feltner-Williams, D. A., Martin, A. M., & White, B. L. (2021). Regulating
sadness: Response-independent and response-dependent benefits of listening to music.
Psychology of Music, 03057356211048545.
Krishna, R., Maithreyi, R., & Surapaneni, K. M. (2010). Research bias: a review for medical students.
J Clin Diagn Res, 4(2), 2320-2324.
Karma, K. & Helsinki Univ. (Finland). Inst. of Education. (1976). The Ability to Structure Acoustic
Material as a Measure of Musical Aptitude: 3, Theoretical Refinements. Research Bulletin.
Law, L. N. C., & Zentner, M. (2012). Assessing Musical Abilities Objectively: DRAFT
129 Construction and Validation of the Profile of Music Perception Skills. PLoS ONE, 7(12), e52508.
https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0052508
Maury, S., & Rickard, N. (2016). Wellbeing in the Classroom: How an Evolutionary Perspective on
Human Musicality Can Inform Music Education. Australian Journal of Music Education,
50(1), 3–15.
DRAFT
pág. 2379
Mahn, H. (1999). Vygotsky's methodological contribution to sociocultural theory. Remedial and
Special education, 20(6), 341-350.
Merriam, S. B. (2009). Qualitative research: A guide to design and implementation (4th ed.). Jossey-
Bass.
Müllensiefen, D., Gingras, B., Musil, J., & Stewart, L. (2014). The musicality of non-musicians: An
index for assessing musical sophistication in the general population. PloS One, 9(2), e89642–
e89642. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0089642
Morse, J. M. (2015). Data were saturated... Qualitative health research, 25(5), 587-588.
Muntanyola-Saura, D. (2016). Musicality as Distributed Cognition in a Dance Studio. Methaodos :
Revista de Ciencias Sociales, 4(1).
Nicolai, J., Gundacker, C., Teeselink, K., & Güttinger, H. R. (2013). Human melody singing by
bullfinches (Pyrrhula pyrrula) gives hints about a cognitive note sequence processing. Animal
Cognition, 17(1), 143–155.
Parameswaran, U. D., Ozawa-Kirk, J. L., & Latendresse, G. (2020). To live (code) or to not: A new
method for coding in qualitative research. Qualitative social work, 19(4), 630-644.
Porflitt, F. I., & Rosas-Díaz, R. R. (2019). Behind the scene: Cognitive benefits of playing a musical
instrument. Executive functions, processing speed, fluid intelligence and divided attention /
Detrás de la escena: Beneficios cognitivos de tocar un instrumento musical.
Pramono, H., Gunadi, J. W., Adhika, O. A., Limyati, Y., Gisela, H., & Dewi, V. C. (2019). The effect
of classical and jazz background-music on concentration and reading comprehension in young
adult women. Journal of Medicine and Health, 2(4).
Schellenberg, E. G. (2011). Examining the association between music lessons and intelligence. The
British Journal of Psychology, 102(3), 283–302. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.2044-
8295.2010.02000.x
Seashore, C. E., Saetveit, J. G., & Lewis, D. (1960). The Seashore measures of musical talents.
Psychological Corporation.
Small, C. (1998). Musicking: The meanings of performing and listening. Wesleyan.
pág. 2379
Mahn, H. (1999). Vygotsky's methodological contribution to sociocultural theory. Remedial and
Special education, 20(6), 341-350.
Merriam, S. B. (2009). Qualitative research: A guide to design and implementation (4th ed.). Jossey-
Bass.
Müllensiefen, D., Gingras, B., Musil, J., & Stewart, L. (2014). The musicality of non-musicians: An
index for assessing musical sophistication in the general population. PloS One, 9(2), e89642–
e89642. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0089642
Morse, J. M. (2015). Data were saturated... Qualitative health research, 25(5), 587-588.
Muntanyola-Saura, D. (2016). Musicality as Distributed Cognition in a Dance Studio. Methaodos :
Revista de Ciencias Sociales, 4(1).
Nicolai, J., Gundacker, C., Teeselink, K., & Güttinger, H. R. (2013). Human melody singing by
bullfinches (Pyrrhula pyrrula) gives hints about a cognitive note sequence processing. Animal
Cognition, 17(1), 143–155.
Parameswaran, U. D., Ozawa-Kirk, J. L., & Latendresse, G. (2020). To live (code) or to not: A new
method for coding in qualitative research. Qualitative social work, 19(4), 630-644.
Porflitt, F. I., & Rosas-Díaz, R. R. (2019). Behind the scene: Cognitive benefits of playing a musical
instrument. Executive functions, processing speed, fluid intelligence and divided attention /
Detrás de la escena: Beneficios cognitivos de tocar un instrumento musical.
Pramono, H., Gunadi, J. W., Adhika, O. A., Limyati, Y., Gisela, H., & Dewi, V. C. (2019). The effect
of classical and jazz background-music on concentration and reading comprehension in young
adult women. Journal of Medicine and Health, 2(4).
Schellenberg, E. G. (2011). Examining the association between music lessons and intelligence. The
British Journal of Psychology, 102(3), 283–302. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.2044-
8295.2010.02000.x
Seashore, C. E., Saetveit, J. G., & Lewis, D. (1960). The Seashore measures of musical talents.
Psychological Corporation.
Small, C. (1998). Musicking: The meanings of performing and listening. Wesleyan.
DRAFT
pág. 2380
Swanwick, K. (2016). A developing discourse in music education : the selected works of keith
swanwick (Ser. World library of educationalists series). Routledge. Retrieved December 4,
2023,
Varvarigou, M., Creech, A., Hallam, S., & McQueen, H. (2011). Bringing different generations
together in music-making: an intergenerational music project in east london. International
Journal of Community Music, 4(3), 207–220.
Welch, G. F. (1998). Early Childhood Musical Development. Research Studies in Music Education,
11(1), 27–41. https://doi.org/10.1177/1321103X9801100104
Welch, G. Howard, D. M. 1956-(David M., Nix, J., & Oxford University Press. (2019). The Oxford
handbook of singing (First;1;). Oxford University Press. DRAFT 139
https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199660773.001.0001
Young, S., & Gillen, J. (2007). Toward a Revised Understanding of Young Children’s musical
Activities: Reflections from the ‘Day in the Life’ Project. 84, 79–99.
https://doi.org/10.7916/D81N7ZR0
Yin, R. K. (2018). Case study research and applications.
Tashakkori, A., & Creswell, J. W. (2007). The New Era of Mixed Methods. Journal of Mixed Methods
Research, 1(1), 3–7. https://doi.org/10.1177/2345678906293042
Tafuri, J., Welch, G., & Hawkins, E. (2017). Infant musicality: New research for educators and parents.
Routledge.
Trehub, S. E., Weiss, M. W., & Cirelli, L. K. (2019). Musicality across the lifespan. In Foundations in
music psychology: Theory and research (pp. 265–303). The MIT Press.
Wagemaker, H., Open Access Publishing in European Networks, SpringerLink (Online service), &
Springer Nature. (2020). Reliability and Validity of International Large-Scale Assessment:
Understanding IEA’s Comparative Studies of Student
Zentner, M., & Strauss, H. (2017). Assessing musical ability quickly and objectively: development
and validation of the Short‐PROMS and the Mini‐PROMS. Annals of the New York Academy
of Sciences, 1400(1), 33-45.
pág. 2380
Swanwick, K. (2016). A developing discourse in music education : the selected works of keith
swanwick (Ser. World library of educationalists series). Routledge. Retrieved December 4,
2023,
Varvarigou, M., Creech, A., Hallam, S., & McQueen, H. (2011). Bringing different generations
together in music-making: an intergenerational music project in east london. International
Journal of Community Music, 4(3), 207–220.
Welch, G. F. (1998). Early Childhood Musical Development. Research Studies in Music Education,
11(1), 27–41. https://doi.org/10.1177/1321103X9801100104
Welch, G. Howard, D. M. 1956-(David M., Nix, J., & Oxford University Press. (2019). The Oxford
handbook of singing (First;1;). Oxford University Press. DRAFT 139
https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199660773.001.0001
Young, S., & Gillen, J. (2007). Toward a Revised Understanding of Young Children’s musical
Activities: Reflections from the ‘Day in the Life’ Project. 84, 79–99.
https://doi.org/10.7916/D81N7ZR0
Yin, R. K. (2018). Case study research and applications.
Tashakkori, A., & Creswell, J. W. (2007). The New Era of Mixed Methods. Journal of Mixed Methods
Research, 1(1), 3–7. https://doi.org/10.1177/2345678906293042
Tafuri, J., Welch, G., & Hawkins, E. (2017). Infant musicality: New research for educators and parents.
Routledge.
Trehub, S. E., Weiss, M. W., & Cirelli, L. K. (2019). Musicality across the lifespan. In Foundations in
music psychology: Theory and research (pp. 265–303). The MIT Press.
Wagemaker, H., Open Access Publishing in European Networks, SpringerLink (Online service), &
Springer Nature. (2020). Reliability and Validity of International Large-Scale Assessment:
Understanding IEA’s Comparative Studies of Student
Zentner, M., & Strauss, H. (2017). Assessing musical ability quickly and objectively: development
and validation of the Short‐PROMS and the Mini‐PROMS. Annals of the New York Academy
of Sciences, 1400(1), 33-45.
DRAFT
pág. 2381
Zdzinski, Stephen F., and Amy Jarman Horne. "Musical autobiographies of preservice music
educators." Research Perspectives in Music Education 16.1 (2014): 32-43.
pág. 2381
Zdzinski, Stephen F., and Amy Jarman Horne. "Musical autobiographies of preservice music
educators." Research Perspectives in Music Education 16.1 (2014): 32-43.