ASSESSMENT OF KEY FACTORS INFLUENCING
THE SUCCESS AND SUSTAINABILITY OF
COMMUNITY-BASED ECOTOURISM: INSIGHTS
FROM SANTA CRUZ DE LA SIERRA, BOLIVIA
EVALUACIÓN DE FACTORES CLAVE QUE INFLUYEN EN
EL ÉXITO Y LA SOSTENIBILIDAD DEL ECOTURISMO
COMUNITARIO: PERSPECTIVAS DE SANTA CRUZ DE LA
SIERRA, BOLIVIA
Naotaka Hirami
Faculty of Engineering and Design Kagawa University - Japan
Martha Hidalgo-Morales
Faculty of Engineering and Design Kagawa University – Japan
pág. 9012
DOI: https://doi.org/10.37811/cl_rcm.v9i2.17666
Assessment of Key Factors Influencing the Success and Sustainability of
Community-Based Ecotourism: Insights from Santa Cruz de la Sierra,
Bolivia
Naotaka Hirami1
hirami.naotaka@kagawa-u.ac.jp
https://orcid.org/0009-0007-1889-630X
Faculty of Engineering and Design
Kagawa University
Kagawa, Japan
Martha Hidalgo-Morales
hidalgo.martha@kagawa-u.ac.jp
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2526-9490
Faculty of Engineering and Design
Kagawa University
Kagawa, Japan
ABSTRACT
Community-based ecotourism (CBET) has emerged as a promising sustainable development strategy.
This study assesses factors contributing to the success and sustainability of seven CBET initiatives
around Santa Cruz de la Sierra, Bolivia, based on a proposed conceptual model. Through qualitative
interviews and quantitative surveys, five key CBET factors were evaluated: community pride,
cooperative structures, local oversight, economic diversification, and external support. Results indicate
that cultural and environmental preservation primarily drive CBET participation, fostering community
pride and inclusivity. Initiatives with structured management and diversified economies, such as San
José de Chiquitos, report high satisfaction and resilience, while those solely reliant on tourism, like
Aguas Calientes, face sustainability challenges. Despite the overall success, there remains a disconnect
between recognizing non-financial benefits and acknowledging the environmental impacts of CBET.
Additionally, business and management skills gaps indicate a need for targeted training. Although
government support is limited, partnerships with NGOs have contributed to CBET development in the
region. These findings validate the proposed CBET model and highlight the importance of adaptative,
external support across diverse cultural contexts. Further research should address how community pride
fosters CBET and how communities effectively collaborate with external entities, such as tourism
industries and governments.
Keywords: community-based ecotourism, CBET factors, structured management, sustainability,
Bolivia
1 Autor principal
Correspondencia: hirami.naotaka@kagawa-u.ac.jp
DOI: https://doi.org/10.37811/cl_rcm.v9i2.17666
Assessment of Key Factors Influencing the Success and Sustainability of
Community-Based Ecotourism: Insights from Santa Cruz de la Sierra,
Bolivia
Naotaka Hirami1
hirami.naotaka@kagawa-u.ac.jp
https://orcid.org/0009-0007-1889-630X
Faculty of Engineering and Design
Kagawa University
Kagawa, Japan
Martha Hidalgo-Morales
hidalgo.martha@kagawa-u.ac.jp
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2526-9490
Faculty of Engineering and Design
Kagawa University
Kagawa, Japan
ABSTRACT
Community-based ecotourism (CBET) has emerged as a promising sustainable development strategy.
This study assesses factors contributing to the success and sustainability of seven CBET initiatives
around Santa Cruz de la Sierra, Bolivia, based on a proposed conceptual model. Through qualitative
interviews and quantitative surveys, five key CBET factors were evaluated: community pride,
cooperative structures, local oversight, economic diversification, and external support. Results indicate
that cultural and environmental preservation primarily drive CBET participation, fostering community
pride and inclusivity. Initiatives with structured management and diversified economies, such as San
José de Chiquitos, report high satisfaction and resilience, while those solely reliant on tourism, like
Aguas Calientes, face sustainability challenges. Despite the overall success, there remains a disconnect
between recognizing non-financial benefits and acknowledging the environmental impacts of CBET.
Additionally, business and management skills gaps indicate a need for targeted training. Although
government support is limited, partnerships with NGOs have contributed to CBET development in the
region. These findings validate the proposed CBET model and highlight the importance of adaptative,
external support across diverse cultural contexts. Further research should address how community pride
fosters CBET and how communities effectively collaborate with external entities, such as tourism
industries and governments.
Keywords: community-based ecotourism, CBET factors, structured management, sustainability,
Bolivia
1 Autor principal
Correspondencia: hirami.naotaka@kagawa-u.ac.jp
pág. 9013
Evaluación de Factores Clave que Influyen en el Éxito y la Sostenibilidad
del Ecoturismo Comunitario: Perspectivas de Santa Cruz de la Sierra,
Bolivia
RESUMEN
El ecoturismo comunitario (CBET por sus siglas en inglés) se ha consolidado como una estrategia
prometedora de desarrollo sostenible. Este estudio evalúa, con base en un modelo conceptual, los
factores que contribuyen al éxito y la sostenibilidad de siete iniciativas de CBET en Santa Cruz de la
Sierra, Bolivia. A través de entrevistas cualitativas y encuestas cuantitativas, se evaluaron cinco
factores clave del CBET: orgullo comunitario, estructuras cooperativas, supervisión local,
diversificación económica y apoyo externo. Los resultados indican que la preservación cultural y
ambiental son los principales impulsores de la participación en CBET, fomentando el orgullo
comunitario y la inclusión. Iniciativas con estructuras de gestión organizadas y economías
diversificadas, como San José de Chiquitos, reportan altos niveles de satisfacción y resiliencia, mientras
que aquellas dependientes exclusivamente del turismo, como Aguas Calientes, enfrentan desafíos de
sostenibilidad. A pesar del éxito general,persiste una desconexión en el reconocimiento de beneficios
no financieros y la conciencia sobre el impacto ambiental del CBET. Además, brechas en las habilidades
de negocio y gestión indican la necesidad de capacitación específica. Aunque el apoyo gubernamental
es limitado alianzas con ONGs han contribuido al desarrollo de CBET en la región. Estos hallazgos
validan el modelo de CBET propuesto, y enfatizan la importancia del apoyo externo adaptativo en
diversos contextos culturales. Investigaciones adicionales deberíán abordar cómo el orgullo
comunitario impulsa el CBET y cómo las comunidades colaboran eficazmente con entidades externas,
como agencias gubernamentales y otros sectores de la industria turística.
Palabras clave: ecoturismo comunitario, factores de CBET, gestión estructurada, sostenibilidad,
Bolivia
Artículo recibido 15 abril 2025
Aceptado para publicación: 10 mayo 2025
Evaluación de Factores Clave que Influyen en el Éxito y la Sostenibilidad
del Ecoturismo Comunitario: Perspectivas de Santa Cruz de la Sierra,
Bolivia
RESUMEN
El ecoturismo comunitario (CBET por sus siglas en inglés) se ha consolidado como una estrategia
prometedora de desarrollo sostenible. Este estudio evalúa, con base en un modelo conceptual, los
factores que contribuyen al éxito y la sostenibilidad de siete iniciativas de CBET en Santa Cruz de la
Sierra, Bolivia. A través de entrevistas cualitativas y encuestas cuantitativas, se evaluaron cinco
factores clave del CBET: orgullo comunitario, estructuras cooperativas, supervisión local,
diversificación económica y apoyo externo. Los resultados indican que la preservación cultural y
ambiental son los principales impulsores de la participación en CBET, fomentando el orgullo
comunitario y la inclusión. Iniciativas con estructuras de gestión organizadas y economías
diversificadas, como San José de Chiquitos, reportan altos niveles de satisfacción y resiliencia, mientras
que aquellas dependientes exclusivamente del turismo, como Aguas Calientes, enfrentan desafíos de
sostenibilidad. A pesar del éxito general,persiste una desconexión en el reconocimiento de beneficios
no financieros y la conciencia sobre el impacto ambiental del CBET. Además, brechas en las habilidades
de negocio y gestión indican la necesidad de capacitación específica. Aunque el apoyo gubernamental
es limitado alianzas con ONGs han contribuido al desarrollo de CBET en la región. Estos hallazgos
validan el modelo de CBET propuesto, y enfatizan la importancia del apoyo externo adaptativo en
diversos contextos culturales. Investigaciones adicionales deberíán abordar cómo el orgullo
comunitario impulsa el CBET y cómo las comunidades colaboran eficazmente con entidades externas,
como agencias gubernamentales y otros sectores de la industria turística.
Palabras clave: ecoturismo comunitario, factores de CBET, gestión estructurada, sostenibilidad,
Bolivia
Artículo recibido 15 abril 2025
Aceptado para publicación: 10 mayo 2025
pág. 9014
INTRODUCTION
Tourism is a crucial driver of global economic growth, promoting development across diverse regions
(The World Travel & Tourism Council, 2022). Yet, its rapid expansion has brought environmental
challenges, prompting a shift towards sustainable approaches (Baloch et al., 2023; Triarchi &
Karamanis, 2017). Community-based ecotourism (CBET) has emerged as a promising strategy,
combining economic development with environmental conservation, cultural preservation, and social
responsibility (Guerrero-Moreno & Oliveira-Junior, 2024; Nguyen et al., 2022; Lonn et al., 2018).
Globally, CBET has shown adaptability and positively impacted local livelihoods (Matiku et al., 2020;
Lonn et al., 2018). However, while a universal CBET model is appealing (Zielinski, Jeong, et al., 2020),
research reveals uneven growth, with success stories often counterbalanced by disparities in outcomes
(Guerrero-Moreno & Oliveira-Junior, 2024; Zielinski, Jeong, et al., 2020; Dodds et al., 2018).
Considering these complexities, we sought to understand what key factors are crucial for the success
and sustainability of CBET initiatives and how these factors interplay within the unique contexts of
diverse communities? For this, we developed a conceptual model of factors influencing CBET
development and sustainability. Initially tested in Mexico (Hirami & Hidalgo Morales, 2024), this study
seeks to further validate the model by examining whether similar patterns emerge in the Bolivian
context.
Bolivia’s rich natural diversity and cultural heritage position it as a strong candidate for ecotourism
development (Medinaceli, 2022; Høyme, 2016). Santa Cruz de la Sierra, in particular, offers a stable
and favorable setting for CBET research due to its well-developed infrastructure, accessibility
(Gobierno Autónomo Municipal de Santa Cruz de la Sierra, 2022), and relatively straightforward socio-
political landscape (Andersen & Rocabado, 2020). This study aims to evaluate how well the CBET
model aligns with real-world dynamics in the region and to examine its potential applicability to areas
with similar characteristics, thereby contributing to the broader academic discourse on sustainable
tourism development.
INTRODUCTION
Tourism is a crucial driver of global economic growth, promoting development across diverse regions
(The World Travel & Tourism Council, 2022). Yet, its rapid expansion has brought environmental
challenges, prompting a shift towards sustainable approaches (Baloch et al., 2023; Triarchi &
Karamanis, 2017). Community-based ecotourism (CBET) has emerged as a promising strategy,
combining economic development with environmental conservation, cultural preservation, and social
responsibility (Guerrero-Moreno & Oliveira-Junior, 2024; Nguyen et al., 2022; Lonn et al., 2018).
Globally, CBET has shown adaptability and positively impacted local livelihoods (Matiku et al., 2020;
Lonn et al., 2018). However, while a universal CBET model is appealing (Zielinski, Jeong, et al., 2020),
research reveals uneven growth, with success stories often counterbalanced by disparities in outcomes
(Guerrero-Moreno & Oliveira-Junior, 2024; Zielinski, Jeong, et al., 2020; Dodds et al., 2018).
Considering these complexities, we sought to understand what key factors are crucial for the success
and sustainability of CBET initiatives and how these factors interplay within the unique contexts of
diverse communities? For this, we developed a conceptual model of factors influencing CBET
development and sustainability. Initially tested in Mexico (Hirami & Hidalgo Morales, 2024), this study
seeks to further validate the model by examining whether similar patterns emerge in the Bolivian
context.
Bolivia’s rich natural diversity and cultural heritage position it as a strong candidate for ecotourism
development (Medinaceli, 2022; Høyme, 2016). Santa Cruz de la Sierra, in particular, offers a stable
and favorable setting for CBET research due to its well-developed infrastructure, accessibility
(Gobierno Autónomo Municipal de Santa Cruz de la Sierra, 2022), and relatively straightforward socio-
political landscape (Andersen & Rocabado, 2020). This study aims to evaluate how well the CBET
model aligns with real-world dynamics in the region and to examine its potential applicability to areas
with similar characteristics, thereby contributing to the broader academic discourse on sustainable
tourism development.
pág. 9015
THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
CBET has emerged as a sustainable alternative to mitigate the environmental and social impacts of
conventional tourism (Baloch et al., 2023; Triarchi & Karamanis, 2017). By integrating environmental
conservation with economic empowerment and fostering community involvement in decision-making,
CBET promotes a sense of ownership and responsibility (Ginanjar, 2023; Nguyen et al., 2022; Sartika
& Wargadinata, 2019). In regions with rich biodiversity and cultural heritage, this model generates jobs,
strengthens local economies (Matiku et al., 2020; Lee & Jan, 2019; Lonn et al., 2018), and enables
communities to share traditions with visitors (Đukić & Volić, 2017), advancing broader sustainability
goals (Rumangkit et al., 2024; Zielinski, Kim, et al., 2020).
Challenges in CBET Implementation
While CBET has shown flexibility and success across various settings (Dodds et al., 2018; Zielinski,
Jeong, et al., 2020), it faces challenges that threaten its sustainability (Phuong et al., 2020; Sonjai et al.,
2018; Kim et al., 2014). Key obstacles include limited access to resources, uneven benefit distribution,
reliance on external entities, conflicts between conservation and community needs, and the risk of
cultural commodification (Zielinski, Kim, et al., 2020; Dodds et al., 2018; Sonjai et al., 2018).
In Kenya’s Maasai Mara, CBET has fostered sustainable livelihoods, preserved cultural traditions, and
supported wildlife conservation by integrating indigenous knowledge into tourism. However, the
community also faces significant challenges, such as restricted access to essential resources, conflicts with
wildlife, and uneven distribution of benefits stemming from limited local involvement in decision-making
(Nampushi & Nankaya, 2020). Similarly, CBET has led to job creation, educational improvements, and
greater social cohesion in Mexico's Coba community. Still, they struggle with benefit allocation and
cultural commodification, causing internal rivalry and the erosion of cultural values (Mendoza-Ramos &
Prideaux, 2018).
These examples underscore the complexity of CBET and the importance of understanding the key factors
that influence its outcomes. The literature identifies four domains that shape CBET’s success:
environmental, economic, social, and institutional (Phuong et al., 2020; Zielinski, Kim, et al., 2020;
Dodds et al., 2018).
THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
CBET has emerged as a sustainable alternative to mitigate the environmental and social impacts of
conventional tourism (Baloch et al., 2023; Triarchi & Karamanis, 2017). By integrating environmental
conservation with economic empowerment and fostering community involvement in decision-making,
CBET promotes a sense of ownership and responsibility (Ginanjar, 2023; Nguyen et al., 2022; Sartika
& Wargadinata, 2019). In regions with rich biodiversity and cultural heritage, this model generates jobs,
strengthens local economies (Matiku et al., 2020; Lee & Jan, 2019; Lonn et al., 2018), and enables
communities to share traditions with visitors (Đukić & Volić, 2017), advancing broader sustainability
goals (Rumangkit et al., 2024; Zielinski, Kim, et al., 2020).
Challenges in CBET Implementation
While CBET has shown flexibility and success across various settings (Dodds et al., 2018; Zielinski,
Jeong, et al., 2020), it faces challenges that threaten its sustainability (Phuong et al., 2020; Sonjai et al.,
2018; Kim et al., 2014). Key obstacles include limited access to resources, uneven benefit distribution,
reliance on external entities, conflicts between conservation and community needs, and the risk of
cultural commodification (Zielinski, Kim, et al., 2020; Dodds et al., 2018; Sonjai et al., 2018).
In Kenya’s Maasai Mara, CBET has fostered sustainable livelihoods, preserved cultural traditions, and
supported wildlife conservation by integrating indigenous knowledge into tourism. However, the
community also faces significant challenges, such as restricted access to essential resources, conflicts with
wildlife, and uneven distribution of benefits stemming from limited local involvement in decision-making
(Nampushi & Nankaya, 2020). Similarly, CBET has led to job creation, educational improvements, and
greater social cohesion in Mexico's Coba community. Still, they struggle with benefit allocation and
cultural commodification, causing internal rivalry and the erosion of cultural values (Mendoza-Ramos &
Prideaux, 2018).
These examples underscore the complexity of CBET and the importance of understanding the key factors
that influence its outcomes. The literature identifies four domains that shape CBET’s success:
environmental, economic, social, and institutional (Phuong et al., 2020; Zielinski, Kim, et al., 2020;
Dodds et al., 2018).
pág. 9016
Understanding the interactions and specific contexts within these areas is essential for creating sustainable
CBET models adaptable to diverse contexts (Guerrero-Moreno & Oliveira-Junior, 2024; Zielinski, Kim,
et al., 2020).
Key Factors in CBET Development: A Proposed Model
To effectively address CBET's challenges and opportunities, we proposed a model that identifies key
factors influencing its development and the relationships among them, as shown in Figure 1. This
framework clarifies CBET dynamics, providing a tool to evaluate its sustainability and potential for
replication.
The model highlights four core factors critical to CBET success. Community pride and the commitment
to preserve nature and culture (Factor 1) are key drivers, leading to the establishment of local
cooperatives (Factor 2). These cooperatives promote community involvement in decision-making and
all phases of CBET, ensuring that local oversight and management (Factor 3) reflect community
priorities. Integrating ecotourism into traditional practices and livelihoods (Factor 4) allows
communities to maintain cultural identity while diversifying economic opportunities. The model
validation in Mexico also revealed a fifth factor: government support (Figure 1). Indigenous
communities embraced external assistance, particularly in the early stages, as a catalyst for growth.
However, this support worked well mainly because laws concerning indigenous communities protected
the community’s independence and control (Hirami & Hidalgo Morales, 2024; Ley de la Comisión
Nacional para el Desarrollo de los Pueblos Indígenas [LCNDPI], 2003)
Figure 1. The proposed model identifies five key factors and their interrelationships that influence the
development of CBET initiatives (Hirami & Hidalgo Morales, 2024)
Understanding the interactions and specific contexts within these areas is essential for creating sustainable
CBET models adaptable to diverse contexts (Guerrero-Moreno & Oliveira-Junior, 2024; Zielinski, Kim,
et al., 2020).
Key Factors in CBET Development: A Proposed Model
To effectively address CBET's challenges and opportunities, we proposed a model that identifies key
factors influencing its development and the relationships among them, as shown in Figure 1. This
framework clarifies CBET dynamics, providing a tool to evaluate its sustainability and potential for
replication.
The model highlights four core factors critical to CBET success. Community pride and the commitment
to preserve nature and culture (Factor 1) are key drivers, leading to the establishment of local
cooperatives (Factor 2). These cooperatives promote community involvement in decision-making and
all phases of CBET, ensuring that local oversight and management (Factor 3) reflect community
priorities. Integrating ecotourism into traditional practices and livelihoods (Factor 4) allows
communities to maintain cultural identity while diversifying economic opportunities. The model
validation in Mexico also revealed a fifth factor: government support (Figure 1). Indigenous
communities embraced external assistance, particularly in the early stages, as a catalyst for growth.
However, this support worked well mainly because laws concerning indigenous communities protected
the community’s independence and control (Hirami & Hidalgo Morales, 2024; Ley de la Comisión
Nacional para el Desarrollo de los Pueblos Indígenas [LCNDPI], 2003)
Figure 1. The proposed model identifies five key factors and their interrelationships that influence the
development of CBET initiatives (Hirami & Hidalgo Morales, 2024)
pág. 9017
The interconnection among these factors creates a self-reinforcing system, with each component
strengthening the others. However, isolated efforts—such as relying solely on pride without adequate
management skills—tend to underperform, as observed in some initiatives in Mexico (Hirami &
Hidalgo Morales, 2024). A comprehensive approach is, therefore, essential to developing a resilient
CBET framework that can adapt and thrive over time (Rumangkit et al., 2024; Zielinski, Kim, et al.,
2020). To further assess the relevance of this model, it was tested in Bolivia to see if similar patterns
and factors would emerge. The insights gained contribute to evaluating the model's adaptability across
different settings.
The Tourism Landscape of Bolivia
Between 2006 and 2019, Bolivia saw a consistent 10% annual growth in tourism, with international
tourism ranking as its fourth-largest export sector before the COVID-19 pandemic (Andersen &
Rocabado, 2020). This growth is driven by Bolivia’s vast natural diversity—from Amazon rainforests
to Andean mountains—and its rich cultural heritage, which includes over 36 indigenous groups
(Minority Rights Group (MRG), 2018). These features provide a strong base for niche tourism,
encompassing adventure, cultural, gastronomic, and ecotourism experiences (Andersen & Rocabado,
2020).
However, Bolivia’s tourism sector remains underdeveloped relative to neighboring countries like Peru
and Brazil (Andersen & Rocabado, 2020). Limited infrastructure in rural areas restricts access to
potential tourism sites (Medinaceli, 2022). Additionally, while Bolivia’s national policies, such as the
Constitution and the Mother Earth Law (2012), prioritize tourism and advocate for sustainable
development, slow implementation, and occasional policy contradictions often hinder sector growth
(Muñoz, 2023; Medinaceli, 2022). In this context, CBET offers the potential for localized economic
development and environmental protection that other tourism models may not as readily support.
Bolivia has successfully implemented CBET projects across different regions. Madidi National Park,
in the upper Amazon River basin, serves as a key ecotourism destination, blending wildlife conservation
efforts with the involvement of local indigenous communities (Coarite & Arteaga Gómez-García, 2023;
Hirami, 2023; Høyme, 2016).
The interconnection among these factors creates a self-reinforcing system, with each component
strengthening the others. However, isolated efforts—such as relying solely on pride without adequate
management skills—tend to underperform, as observed in some initiatives in Mexico (Hirami &
Hidalgo Morales, 2024). A comprehensive approach is, therefore, essential to developing a resilient
CBET framework that can adapt and thrive over time (Rumangkit et al., 2024; Zielinski, Kim, et al.,
2020). To further assess the relevance of this model, it was tested in Bolivia to see if similar patterns
and factors would emerge. The insights gained contribute to evaluating the model's adaptability across
different settings.
The Tourism Landscape of Bolivia
Between 2006 and 2019, Bolivia saw a consistent 10% annual growth in tourism, with international
tourism ranking as its fourth-largest export sector before the COVID-19 pandemic (Andersen &
Rocabado, 2020). This growth is driven by Bolivia’s vast natural diversity—from Amazon rainforests
to Andean mountains—and its rich cultural heritage, which includes over 36 indigenous groups
(Minority Rights Group (MRG), 2018). These features provide a strong base for niche tourism,
encompassing adventure, cultural, gastronomic, and ecotourism experiences (Andersen & Rocabado,
2020).
However, Bolivia’s tourism sector remains underdeveloped relative to neighboring countries like Peru
and Brazil (Andersen & Rocabado, 2020). Limited infrastructure in rural areas restricts access to
potential tourism sites (Medinaceli, 2022). Additionally, while Bolivia’s national policies, such as the
Constitution and the Mother Earth Law (2012), prioritize tourism and advocate for sustainable
development, slow implementation, and occasional policy contradictions often hinder sector growth
(Muñoz, 2023; Medinaceli, 2022). In this context, CBET offers the potential for localized economic
development and environmental protection that other tourism models may not as readily support.
Bolivia has successfully implemented CBET projects across different regions. Madidi National Park,
in the upper Amazon River basin, serves as a key ecotourism destination, blending wildlife conservation
efforts with the involvement of local indigenous communities (Coarite & Arteaga Gómez-García, 2023;
Hirami, 2023; Høyme, 2016).
pág. 9018
Similarly, in the Cochabamba department, Omereque supports Red-fronted macaw conservation by
training locals to manage tourism services independently, generating income, and encouraging species
protection while supporting local livelihoods and preserving cultural traditions (Armonía Bolivia, n.d.;
Hirami, 2023, 2015). Additional CBET initiatives in Chuquisaca and Potosí showcase how the model
can preserve cultural heritage and promote economic diversification in historically rich landscapes
(Coarite & Arteaga Gómez-García, 2023). These examples underscore CBET’s potential to succeed
across Bolivia's diverse regions.
Santa Cruz de la Sierra: A Strategic Setting for CBET
Santa Cruz de la Sierra, Bolivia’s largest and fastest-growing city, is a gateway to the eastern lowlands
and the Amazon. Historically reliant on agriculture and industry (Gobierno Autónomo Municipal de
Santa Cruz de la Sierra, 2022), the city has recently shifted its focus towards diversifying its economy,
particularly through ecotourism. For example, from 2010 to 2020, over 4,600 new hospitality and
tourism businesses were created, highlighting the increasing interest in Santa Cruz's tourism potential
(Andersen & Rocabado, 2020). Thus, with its robust tourism demand and regional influence, Santa
Cruz represents an ideal context for studying CBET.
With its proximity to major ecological reserves, Santa Cruz is strategically positioned to become an
ecotourism hub. For instance, Noel Kempff Mercado National Park, a UNESCO World Heritage Site,
is celebrated for its pristine rainforests and offers rich nature-based and cultural exchange experiences
(UNESCO World Heritage Center, 2000). Similarly, Amboró National Park hosts several small-scale
CBET initiatives (Hirami, 2023; Soria, 2008). However, these projects face significant obstacles,
including limited market access, insufficient funding, and inadequate infrastructure, hampering
scalability and long-term viability (Soria, 2008).
Considering these challenges, this study assesses the feasibility of applying the CBET model in Santa
Cruz, Bolivia, examining whether similar factors and patterns identified in Mexico also emerge here.
By identifying these factors, this research aims to contribute valuable insights into enhancing the
resilience of CBET initiatives in Bolivia and similar regions.
Similarly, in the Cochabamba department, Omereque supports Red-fronted macaw conservation by
training locals to manage tourism services independently, generating income, and encouraging species
protection while supporting local livelihoods and preserving cultural traditions (Armonía Bolivia, n.d.;
Hirami, 2023, 2015). Additional CBET initiatives in Chuquisaca and Potosí showcase how the model
can preserve cultural heritage and promote economic diversification in historically rich landscapes
(Coarite & Arteaga Gómez-García, 2023). These examples underscore CBET’s potential to succeed
across Bolivia's diverse regions.
Santa Cruz de la Sierra: A Strategic Setting for CBET
Santa Cruz de la Sierra, Bolivia’s largest and fastest-growing city, is a gateway to the eastern lowlands
and the Amazon. Historically reliant on agriculture and industry (Gobierno Autónomo Municipal de
Santa Cruz de la Sierra, 2022), the city has recently shifted its focus towards diversifying its economy,
particularly through ecotourism. For example, from 2010 to 2020, over 4,600 new hospitality and
tourism businesses were created, highlighting the increasing interest in Santa Cruz's tourism potential
(Andersen & Rocabado, 2020). Thus, with its robust tourism demand and regional influence, Santa
Cruz represents an ideal context for studying CBET.
With its proximity to major ecological reserves, Santa Cruz is strategically positioned to become an
ecotourism hub. For instance, Noel Kempff Mercado National Park, a UNESCO World Heritage Site,
is celebrated for its pristine rainforests and offers rich nature-based and cultural exchange experiences
(UNESCO World Heritage Center, 2000). Similarly, Amboró National Park hosts several small-scale
CBET initiatives (Hirami, 2023; Soria, 2008). However, these projects face significant obstacles,
including limited market access, insufficient funding, and inadequate infrastructure, hampering
scalability and long-term viability (Soria, 2008).
Considering these challenges, this study assesses the feasibility of applying the CBET model in Santa
Cruz, Bolivia, examining whether similar factors and patterns identified in Mexico also emerge here.
By identifying these factors, this research aims to contribute valuable insights into enhancing the
resilience of CBET initiatives in Bolivia and similar regions.
pág. 9019
METHODOLOGY
A concurrent parallel mixed-methods design was used to collect qualitative and quantitative data from
seven CBET initiatives in Santa Cruz de la Sierra, Bolivia, to enable a comprehensive analysis. The
initiatives were selected in consultation with a local tourism agency, which provided regional context and
supported the final selection. These initiatives represent a variety of ecotourism activities and
developmental stages, giving a broad view of the local context. A summary of key characteristics for each
site is provided in Table 1.
Table 1 Characteristics of the selected CBET initiatives
Characteristic
→ Geographical
Context
Development
Stage Accessibility⁎ Visitor’s
demographics Activities Offered Infrastructure
Initiative ↓
Villa
Amboró Integrated
Management
Area of
Amboró
National Park1
Developing Moderate to
difficult
Foreigners /
couples &
groups
Guided nature
tours, wildlife
observation,
conservation
activities
Basic, rustic
cabins, camping,
communal
dinning
La Chonta Uncertain2 Very difficult
Foreigners /
couples &
groups
Wildlife
observation &
education,
traditional
practices
Limited, small
cabins
San José de
Chiquitos
Chiquitania
region Growing Easy
Local &
foreigners /
groups &
families
Cultural heritage,
historical tours
Advance,
several options
including hotels
Tucabaca
Municipal
Wildlife
Reserve Valle
de Tucabaca
Emerging Moderate Local / families Trekking, nature-
based tourism Minimal lodging
Chochís Serranía de
Chochís Developing Easy to
moderate
Local /
families,
groups
Religious tourism,
scenic tours
Basic, simple
accommodation
Aguas
Calientes Aguas
Calientes river Maturing Moderate Local / families
Wellness tourism:
Hot springs,
nature-based
relaxation
Moderate, from
camping to
hotels
Santiago de
Chiquitos
Chiquitania
region
Planning /
Emerging Easy Local /families
& couples
Cultural and
natural heritage
Basic, simple
accommodation
⁎ Accessibility is a qualitative attribute considering the distance from the state's capital, the road, sign conditions, travel time, and community
support for arrival.
1 A designated region focused on the sustainable management and conservation of biodiversity, promoting ecological integrity while allowing
for compatible human activities.
2 The current status is challenging to define due to climatic conditions and surrounding wildfires that have rendered the facilities damaged and
inoperable
METHODOLOGY
A concurrent parallel mixed-methods design was used to collect qualitative and quantitative data from
seven CBET initiatives in Santa Cruz de la Sierra, Bolivia, to enable a comprehensive analysis. The
initiatives were selected in consultation with a local tourism agency, which provided regional context and
supported the final selection. These initiatives represent a variety of ecotourism activities and
developmental stages, giving a broad view of the local context. A summary of key characteristics for each
site is provided in Table 1.
Table 1 Characteristics of the selected CBET initiatives
Characteristic
→ Geographical
Context
Development
Stage Accessibility⁎ Visitor’s
demographics Activities Offered Infrastructure
Initiative ↓
Villa
Amboró Integrated
Management
Area of
Amboró
National Park1
Developing Moderate to
difficult
Foreigners /
couples &
groups
Guided nature
tours, wildlife
observation,
conservation
activities
Basic, rustic
cabins, camping,
communal
dinning
La Chonta Uncertain2 Very difficult
Foreigners /
couples &
groups
Wildlife
observation &
education,
traditional
practices
Limited, small
cabins
San José de
Chiquitos
Chiquitania
region Growing Easy
Local &
foreigners /
groups &
families
Cultural heritage,
historical tours
Advance,
several options
including hotels
Tucabaca
Municipal
Wildlife
Reserve Valle
de Tucabaca
Emerging Moderate Local / families Trekking, nature-
based tourism Minimal lodging
Chochís Serranía de
Chochís Developing Easy to
moderate
Local /
families,
groups
Religious tourism,
scenic tours
Basic, simple
accommodation
Aguas
Calientes Aguas
Calientes river Maturing Moderate Local / families
Wellness tourism:
Hot springs,
nature-based
relaxation
Moderate, from
camping to
hotels
Santiago de
Chiquitos
Chiquitania
region
Planning /
Emerging Easy Local /families
& couples
Cultural and
natural heritage
Basic, simple
accommodation
⁎ Accessibility is a qualitative attribute considering the distance from the state's capital, the road, sign conditions, travel time, and community
support for arrival.
1 A designated region focused on the sustainable management and conservation of biodiversity, promoting ecological integrity while allowing
for compatible human activities.
2 The current status is challenging to define due to climatic conditions and surrounding wildfires that have rendered the facilities damaged and
inoperable
pág. 9020
The tourism agency also contributed survey responses, and input was gathered from key Santa Cruz
Department Government stakeholders, including the Coordinator of Culture and Tourism, the Legal
Advisor, and the Tourism Advisor. These perspectives enriched the assessment of CBET initiatives,
providing a more nuanced understanding of the region’s ecotourism landscape.
Data Collection: Interviews and Surveys with CBET Stakeholders
Data collection employed semi-structured interviews with initiative coordinators and structured surveys
with community members, conducted in person to foster comfort and obtain more in-depth responses.
Interviews were held with 14 coordinators or their equivalents, using primarily open-ended questions with
a few multiple-choice items. Ten key topics, identified through a literature review, were covered:
amenities, promotional strategies, motivations for participation, government support, establishment and
conditions of CBET, cooperative involvement, sense of pride, engagement levels, decision-making
processes, and benefit-sharing procedures. In parallel, community members actively involved in CBET
contributed a total of 40 survey responses. The surveys employed a 5-point Likert scale to assess
motivations for participating in ecotourism, benefit-sharing processes, involvement in decision-making,
and perceptions of ecotourism impacts. Ethical considerations were prioritized throughout the data
collection process. Participants provided verbal consent after receiving comprehensive information about
the study. All interviews, surveys, and dataset materials will be available upon request.
Data Analysis
Qualitative content analysis was applied to the interview transcripts from coordinators, focusing on key
insights and themes related to factors influencing CBET initiatives. Ten predefined topics were examined
to derive insights into coordinators' experiences and beliefs. Descriptive statistical analysis was conducted
on survey data to calculate percentages and frequencies, revealing trends and community perceptions
about CBET impacts. Tucabaca was excluded from the quantitative survey analysis to maintain
consistency across sites because only a single coordinator interview was conducted due to the
unavailability of rangers.
The tourism agency also contributed survey responses, and input was gathered from key Santa Cruz
Department Government stakeholders, including the Coordinator of Culture and Tourism, the Legal
Advisor, and the Tourism Advisor. These perspectives enriched the assessment of CBET initiatives,
providing a more nuanced understanding of the region’s ecotourism landscape.
Data Collection: Interviews and Surveys with CBET Stakeholders
Data collection employed semi-structured interviews with initiative coordinators and structured surveys
with community members, conducted in person to foster comfort and obtain more in-depth responses.
Interviews were held with 14 coordinators or their equivalents, using primarily open-ended questions with
a few multiple-choice items. Ten key topics, identified through a literature review, were covered:
amenities, promotional strategies, motivations for participation, government support, establishment and
conditions of CBET, cooperative involvement, sense of pride, engagement levels, decision-making
processes, and benefit-sharing procedures. In parallel, community members actively involved in CBET
contributed a total of 40 survey responses. The surveys employed a 5-point Likert scale to assess
motivations for participating in ecotourism, benefit-sharing processes, involvement in decision-making,
and perceptions of ecotourism impacts. Ethical considerations were prioritized throughout the data
collection process. Participants provided verbal consent after receiving comprehensive information about
the study. All interviews, surveys, and dataset materials will be available upon request.
Data Analysis
Qualitative content analysis was applied to the interview transcripts from coordinators, focusing on key
insights and themes related to factors influencing CBET initiatives. Ten predefined topics were examined
to derive insights into coordinators' experiences and beliefs. Descriptive statistical analysis was conducted
on survey data to calculate percentages and frequencies, revealing trends and community perceptions
about CBET impacts. Tucabaca was excluded from the quantitative survey analysis to maintain
consistency across sites because only a single coordinator interview was conducted due to the
unavailability of rangers.
pág. 9021
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The studied CBET initiatives originate from varied backgrounds, such as community resistance to
government-imposed relocation (Villa Amboró, La Chonta), environmental activism (Tucabaca),
cultural preservation (San José de Chiquitos, Chochís, and Santiago de Chiquitos), and entrepreneurial
opportunity (Aguas Calientes). These origins influence management practices, target markets, and
outcomes (Table 1 and Table 2), providing context for how CBET aligns with the model’s five core
factors, as examined below.
Table 2. Summary of the main insights from the coordinator’s interviews.
Initiative → Villa
Amboró La Chonta San José de
Chiquitos Tucabaca Chochís Aguas
Calientes
Santiago de
ChiquitosCharacteristic
↓
Establishment
of CBET 1997 2000 2018 2011 2007 Early 2000 2006
External
support
Moderate
Local
NGO’s
Moderate
Local
NGO’s
High
European
NGO &
government
Limited
municipal
government
Limited
Belgium &
local environ.
institutions
Limited
French &
local NGOs
Limited
European
NGO
Management
skills 55% 40%
30% in
CBET
100% in
crafts
25% <25% 40% <25%
Ownership &
Management Community Community
Mixed
(community
/private)
Municipal
government
Mixed
(community
/ local
NGO)
Mostly
private
(family
owned)
Mixed (town
government
/private)
Association
status Organized Semi-
organized
Fully
organized
with legal
status
N/A Unorganized
Mixed
(private,
semi and
organized)
N/A
Association
composition
Community
affiliates,
65%
participation
Community
affiliates,
50%
participation
Community
representati
ves
N/A
Committee
inside town
government
Familiar,
communal
& private
N/A.
Benefit
distribution
system
Clear +
reinvestment
Clear,
dependent
on
participation
Very clear &
formal
salary +
individual
sales
Not clear
No system
Individual
profit
Mixed
(individual
&
communal)
No system,
Individual
profit
N/A: not applicable; NGO: non-governmental organization.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The studied CBET initiatives originate from varied backgrounds, such as community resistance to
government-imposed relocation (Villa Amboró, La Chonta), environmental activism (Tucabaca),
cultural preservation (San José de Chiquitos, Chochís, and Santiago de Chiquitos), and entrepreneurial
opportunity (Aguas Calientes). These origins influence management practices, target markets, and
outcomes (Table 1 and Table 2), providing context for how CBET aligns with the model’s five core
factors, as examined below.
Table 2. Summary of the main insights from the coordinator’s interviews.
Initiative → Villa
Amboró La Chonta San José de
Chiquitos Tucabaca Chochís Aguas
Calientes
Santiago de
ChiquitosCharacteristic
↓
Establishment
of CBET 1997 2000 2018 2011 2007 Early 2000 2006
External
support
Moderate
Local
NGO’s
Moderate
Local
NGO’s
High
European
NGO &
government
Limited
municipal
government
Limited
Belgium &
local environ.
institutions
Limited
French &
local NGOs
Limited
European
NGO
Management
skills 55% 40%
30% in
CBET
100% in
crafts
25% <25% 40% <25%
Ownership &
Management Community Community
Mixed
(community
/private)
Municipal
government
Mixed
(community
/ local
NGO)
Mostly
private
(family
owned)
Mixed (town
government
/private)
Association
status Organized Semi-
organized
Fully
organized
with legal
status
N/A Unorganized
Mixed
(private,
semi and
organized)
N/A
Association
composition
Community
affiliates,
65%
participation
Community
affiliates,
50%
participation
Community
representati
ves
N/A
Committee
inside town
government
Familiar,
communal
& private
N/A.
Benefit
distribution
system
Clear +
reinvestment
Clear,
dependent
on
participation
Very clear &
formal
salary +
individual
sales
Not clear
No system
Individual
profit
Mixed
(individual
&
communal)
No system,
Individual
profit
N/A: not applicable; NGO: non-governmental organization.
pág. 9022
Motivations driving CBET participation
Across all initiatives, CBET is predominantly driven by cultural and environmental preservation (>85%),
followed by community-building motives (Factor 1), with economic gains ranking lowest (only 43%)
(Figure 2). Coordinators reinforced this vision, considering tourism a complementary activity rather than
a primary income source (Factor 4) and a means to celebrate and preserve cultural identity. However, the
limited focus on economic returns highlights business and management skills gaps crucial for CBET’s
long-term viability. Coordinators expressed a pressing need for training in these areas. San José de
Chiquitos exemplifies this community-driven vision by fostering sustained engagement and enhancing
community pride through its cultural focus. The prior experience of regional artisans in managing craft
businesses (Table 2), combined with knowledgeable leadership, has strengthened the CBET project and
improved its overall outcomes (Factor 3).
Figure 2. Community perceptions of motivations for participating in CBET
Community Pride and Empowerment
A strong sense of community pride was observed, with 92% of participants expressing it and 71%
agreeing that this sentiment is widely shared. Furthermore, 88% believe CBET strengthens pride, and
85% feel it has empowered the community.
Motivations driving CBET participation
Across all initiatives, CBET is predominantly driven by cultural and environmental preservation (>85%),
followed by community-building motives (Factor 1), with economic gains ranking lowest (only 43%)
(Figure 2). Coordinators reinforced this vision, considering tourism a complementary activity rather than
a primary income source (Factor 4) and a means to celebrate and preserve cultural identity. However, the
limited focus on economic returns highlights business and management skills gaps crucial for CBET’s
long-term viability. Coordinators expressed a pressing need for training in these areas. San José de
Chiquitos exemplifies this community-driven vision by fostering sustained engagement and enhancing
community pride through its cultural focus. The prior experience of regional artisans in managing craft
businesses (Table 2), combined with knowledgeable leadership, has strengthened the CBET project and
improved its overall outcomes (Factor 3).
Figure 2. Community perceptions of motivations for participating in CBET
Community Pride and Empowerment
A strong sense of community pride was observed, with 92% of participants expressing it and 71%
agreeing that this sentiment is widely shared. Furthermore, 88% believe CBET strengthens pride, and
85% feel it has empowered the community.
pág. 9023
Community pride (Factor 1) relates primarily to cultural heritage preservation (San José de Chiquitos,
Chochís, and Santiago de Chiquitos) and the maintenance of traditional practices (Villa Amboró and
La Chonta), contrasting with Mexican CBET initiatives where indigenous identity is central (Hirami &
Hidalgo Morales, 2024). Additionally, CBET offers alternatives to traditional livelihoods, mainly
benefiting women and elders and supporting inclusive income generation—a goal aligned with Santa
Cruz government priorities. For instance, in San José de Chiquitos, women’s artisan empowerment is a
core objective, while in Villa Amboró, women-led management has been particularly successful.
However, it remains unclear whether community pride drives CBET implementation in an intrinsic or
extrinsic way, which warrants further investigation.
Management of CBET
Community involvement, cooperatives, and decision-making
Community participation in CBET development and decision-making yielded mixed results, with an
average of 53% feeling consistently involved in development and 66% in decision-making.
Participation varied across initiatives, with San José de Chiquitos and Aguas Calientes reporting the
highest engagement (73-85%), while Chochis and La Chonta saw the lowest (
Community pride (Factor 1) relates primarily to cultural heritage preservation (San José de Chiquitos,
Chochís, and Santiago de Chiquitos) and the maintenance of traditional practices (Villa Amboró and
La Chonta), contrasting with Mexican CBET initiatives where indigenous identity is central (Hirami &
Hidalgo Morales, 2024). Additionally, CBET offers alternatives to traditional livelihoods, mainly
benefiting women and elders and supporting inclusive income generation—a goal aligned with Santa
Cruz government priorities. For instance, in San José de Chiquitos, women’s artisan empowerment is a
core objective, while in Villa Amboró, women-led management has been particularly successful.
However, it remains unclear whether community pride drives CBET implementation in an intrinsic or
extrinsic way, which warrants further investigation.
Management of CBET
Community involvement, cooperatives, and decision-making
Community participation in CBET development and decision-making yielded mixed results, with an
average of 53% feeling consistently involved in development and 66% in decision-making.
Participation varied across initiatives, with San José de Chiquitos and Aguas Calientes reporting the
highest engagement (73-85%), while Chochis and La Chonta saw the lowest (
pág. 9024
Figure 3). Initiatives with higher participation often had structured management. For instance, San José
de Chiquitos formalized management through the legally recognized Asociación Josesana Sabor y Arte
(AJOSA), a directorio with clear benefit-sharing policies and regular meetings, fostering trust and
sustained engagement (Factor 3). Villa Amboró has an organized directorio with active affiliate
participation at around 65% (Table 2). However, challenges remain, particularly in engaging younger
generations in CBET activities. In Aguas Calientes, management structures range from private and
family-run businesses to small communal groups. While high participation and satisfaction were
reported, field observations suggest these views may be overly optimistic. Coordinators noted that
decision-making and resource control remain concentrated among a few families, limiting broader
engagement and fostering a reluctance to change or collaborate externally. As a result, the positive
results may mask underlying dissatisfaction and management issues.
Figure 3). Initiatives with higher participation often had structured management. For instance, San José
de Chiquitos formalized management through the legally recognized Asociación Josesana Sabor y Arte
(AJOSA), a directorio with clear benefit-sharing policies and regular meetings, fostering trust and
sustained engagement (Factor 3). Villa Amboró has an organized directorio with active affiliate
participation at around 65% (Table 2). However, challenges remain, particularly in engaging younger
generations in CBET activities. In Aguas Calientes, management structures range from private and
family-run businesses to small communal groups. While high participation and satisfaction were
reported, field observations suggest these views may be overly optimistic. Coordinators noted that
decision-making and resource control remain concentrated among a few families, limiting broader
engagement and fostering a reluctance to change or collaborate externally. As a result, the positive
results may mask underlying dissatisfaction and management issues.
pág. 9025
Figure 3. Perceptions by initiative regarding community participation frequency in CBET development
and decision-making
In contrast, the local government manages Chochís (and Tucabaca), where CBET priorities may be
overlooked, leading to community exclusion. La Chonta faces inconsistent engagement due to
unfulfilled expectations about the initiative’s benefits. Notably, engagement in decision-making
outpaces involvement across initiatives, suggesting that the “directorio” structure effectively represents
community interests. However, it is not as fully developed as cooperatives seen in Mexico, with AJOSA
being closer to this model. As the proposed model highlights, these variations underscore the
importance of well-managed associations (Factor 2) to foster community engagement, trust, ownership,
and responsibility (Factor 3).
Benefits Distribution and Non-Financial Gains
While coordinators in some initiatives reported having transparent benefit-sharing systems (Table 2),
only 56% of participants, on average, agreed or strongly agreed that such systems exist. This perception
varies among initiatives. In San José de Chiquitos, for example, 90% of participants acknowledged a
structured benefit-sharing system, compared to 40–50% in other initiatives and none in Chochís, where
most respondents disagreed or remained neutral.
Additionally, ambivalence about benefits allocation persists, as only 42% of participants across all
initiatives reported feeling financially compensated, and even fewer, 22% recognized non-financial
benefits. In San José de Chiquitos, satisfaction is significantly higher: 83% of respondents reported
feeling financially compensated (75% strongly agreed), and 75% recognized non-financial benefits.
Figure 3. Perceptions by initiative regarding community participation frequency in CBET development
and decision-making
In contrast, the local government manages Chochís (and Tucabaca), where CBET priorities may be
overlooked, leading to community exclusion. La Chonta faces inconsistent engagement due to
unfulfilled expectations about the initiative’s benefits. Notably, engagement in decision-making
outpaces involvement across initiatives, suggesting that the “directorio” structure effectively represents
community interests. However, it is not as fully developed as cooperatives seen in Mexico, with AJOSA
being closer to this model. As the proposed model highlights, these variations underscore the
importance of well-managed associations (Factor 2) to foster community engagement, trust, ownership,
and responsibility (Factor 3).
Benefits Distribution and Non-Financial Gains
While coordinators in some initiatives reported having transparent benefit-sharing systems (Table 2),
only 56% of participants, on average, agreed or strongly agreed that such systems exist. This perception
varies among initiatives. In San José de Chiquitos, for example, 90% of participants acknowledged a
structured benefit-sharing system, compared to 40–50% in other initiatives and none in Chochís, where
most respondents disagreed or remained neutral.
Additionally, ambivalence about benefits allocation persists, as only 42% of participants across all
initiatives reported feeling financially compensated, and even fewer, 22% recognized non-financial
benefits. In San José de Chiquitos, satisfaction is significantly higher: 83% of respondents reported
feeling financially compensated (75% strongly agreed), and 75% recognized non-financial benefits.
pág. 9026
This contrast suggests that structured management and clear benefit-sharing mechanisms, as seen in
San José, may contribute to higher community satisfaction and perceived benefits (Figure 4).
In communities where CBET complements agriculture (e.g., Villa Amboró) or crafts (e.g., San José de
Chiquitos), diversification supports resilience (Factor 4), resulting in higher satisfaction rates and
reduced dependency on tourism. Conversely, initiatives like Aguas Calientes, which rely solely on
tourism, face sustainability risks as heavy dependence on tourism can lead to unsustainable practices
driven by economic demands, as indicated by coordinator interviews.
Figure 4. Comparative perceptions across CBET initiatives reveal complexities in benefit-sharing
processes
Non-financial benefits were less acknowledged by participants but more apparent to coordinators,
suggesting a gap in community awareness, especially in initiatives with unmet financial expectations
(La. Chonta, Chochís, Aguas Calientes, and Santiago de Chiquitos). It should be noted that, when asked
in more detail in person, participants across initiatives acknowledged CBET's broader contributions,
including educating tourists, transferring traditional knowledge, and facilitating skill acquisition.
This suggests persistent challenges in achieving consistent benefit distribution, as reflected in the mixed
perceptions of financial compensation and the limited recognition of non-financial benefits across
initiatives, highlighting a need for more transparent and inclusive mechanisms.
Environmental and Cultural Impacts
Perceptions of environmental and cultural impacts are generally positive, with only 25% on average
viewing CBET as detrimental to lifestyle or heritage and 23% reporting increased local pollution.
This contrast suggests that structured management and clear benefit-sharing mechanisms, as seen in
San José, may contribute to higher community satisfaction and perceived benefits (Figure 4).
In communities where CBET complements agriculture (e.g., Villa Amboró) or crafts (e.g., San José de
Chiquitos), diversification supports resilience (Factor 4), resulting in higher satisfaction rates and
reduced dependency on tourism. Conversely, initiatives like Aguas Calientes, which rely solely on
tourism, face sustainability risks as heavy dependence on tourism can lead to unsustainable practices
driven by economic demands, as indicated by coordinator interviews.
Figure 4. Comparative perceptions across CBET initiatives reveal complexities in benefit-sharing
processes
Non-financial benefits were less acknowledged by participants but more apparent to coordinators,
suggesting a gap in community awareness, especially in initiatives with unmet financial expectations
(La. Chonta, Chochís, Aguas Calientes, and Santiago de Chiquitos). It should be noted that, when asked
in more detail in person, participants across initiatives acknowledged CBET's broader contributions,
including educating tourists, transferring traditional knowledge, and facilitating skill acquisition.
This suggests persistent challenges in achieving consistent benefit distribution, as reflected in the mixed
perceptions of financial compensation and the limited recognition of non-financial benefits across
initiatives, highlighting a need for more transparent and inclusive mechanisms.
Environmental and Cultural Impacts
Perceptions of environmental and cultural impacts are generally positive, with only 25% on average
viewing CBET as detrimental to lifestyle or heritage and 23% reporting increased local pollution.
pág. 9027
However, 95% observed landscape changes due to tourism, suggesting limited awareness of the long-
term impacts of environmental alteration (Factor 3). In Aguas Calientes, where riverbank pollution and
overcrowding are evident, only 33% acknowledged these issues, possibly because information about
these problems may only reach some people due to the control of information by a few individuals. It
is encouraging that Villa Amboró and Tucabaca lead conservation efforts, with initiatives in recycling,
waste management, and environmental education that emphasize the importance of stewardship for the
sustainability of CBET.
Government and External Support
Each initiative has received support from NGOs or environmental institutions (Table 2), primarily for
infrastructure, technical, or educational purposes, and often with a focus on conservation and resource
management. San José de Chiquitos, which benefits from strong partnerships, demonstrates how
structured external support can enhance marketing and project development. Coordinators across
initiatives reported a lack of governmental support, stressing the need for systematic involvement.
According to the Santa Cruz de la Sierra tourism department, CBET support efforts face budget
constraints, underscoring the need for strategic and independent planning. These insights highlight the
critical role of external support (Factor 5) in CBET sustainability and alignment with community goals.
Overall, the findings validate the applicability of the CBET model across diverse contexts, with each
factor playing a critical role in fostering community engagement, resilience, and sustainable practices.
CONCLUSIONS
This study highlights the complex landscape of community-based ecotourism (CBET) in Santa Cruz
de la Sierra, Bolivia. Participation is driven by cultural and environmental preservation over
economic incentives. These motivations reflect participants’ cultural identity and pride (Factor 1),
which CBET activities further reinforce.
CBET initiatives with structured management and benefit-sharing systems (Factor 2), such as San
José de Chiquitos, demonstrated higher community engagement and satisfaction, even in its early
stages of development. In contrast, projects solely reliant on tourism, like Aguas Calientes, face
sustainability risks, underscoring the importance of economic diversification (Factor 4).
However, 95% observed landscape changes due to tourism, suggesting limited awareness of the long-
term impacts of environmental alteration (Factor 3). In Aguas Calientes, where riverbank pollution and
overcrowding are evident, only 33% acknowledged these issues, possibly because information about
these problems may only reach some people due to the control of information by a few individuals. It
is encouraging that Villa Amboró and Tucabaca lead conservation efforts, with initiatives in recycling,
waste management, and environmental education that emphasize the importance of stewardship for the
sustainability of CBET.
Government and External Support
Each initiative has received support from NGOs or environmental institutions (Table 2), primarily for
infrastructure, technical, or educational purposes, and often with a focus on conservation and resource
management. San José de Chiquitos, which benefits from strong partnerships, demonstrates how
structured external support can enhance marketing and project development. Coordinators across
initiatives reported a lack of governmental support, stressing the need for systematic involvement.
According to the Santa Cruz de la Sierra tourism department, CBET support efforts face budget
constraints, underscoring the need for strategic and independent planning. These insights highlight the
critical role of external support (Factor 5) in CBET sustainability and alignment with community goals.
Overall, the findings validate the applicability of the CBET model across diverse contexts, with each
factor playing a critical role in fostering community engagement, resilience, and sustainable practices.
CONCLUSIONS
This study highlights the complex landscape of community-based ecotourism (CBET) in Santa Cruz
de la Sierra, Bolivia. Participation is driven by cultural and environmental preservation over
economic incentives. These motivations reflect participants’ cultural identity and pride (Factor 1),
which CBET activities further reinforce.
CBET initiatives with structured management and benefit-sharing systems (Factor 2), such as San
José de Chiquitos, demonstrated higher community engagement and satisfaction, even in its early
stages of development. In contrast, projects solely reliant on tourism, like Aguas Calientes, face
sustainability risks, underscoring the importance of economic diversification (Factor 4).
pág. 9028
Villa Amboró exemplifies this diversification by integrating CBET as a complementary income
activity to agriculture and animal breeding, which enhances resilience and stability.
While communities generally recognized both financial and non-financial benefits of CBET,
perceptions of fairness in compensation vary. Many participants feel under-compensated financially,
with San José de Chiquitos being a notable exception, suggesting potential gaps in transparency or
understanding around compensation. Furthermore, a noteworthy gap in community awareness around
CBET’s non-financial benefits indicates the need for improved education on its broader impact. A
pressing need for business and management skills was also identified as essential for long-term
viability (Factor 3).
Conflicting views on environmental impacts further reveal that while CBET is not widely seen as
threatening participants’ lifestyles or heritage, many acknowledged landscape changes due to tourism
activities. This mixed perception suggests a lack of long-term perspective on environmental impacts,
pointing to a need for environmental education as part of CBET’s sustainability strategy.
Another critical gap was the limited involvement of government (Factor 5), which pointed to the
importance of strategic public sector engagement to enhance CBET’s impact and longevity across
communities.
Overall, this study validates the proposed CBET model, highlighting the relevance of five key
factors —community pride, cooperative structures, local oversight, economic diversification, and
external support— for CBET development and sustainability. The model offers a practical
framework for understanding and addressing CBET challenges, providing insights that can inform
similar community-based ecotourism models globally.
Future research should explore how intrinsic and extrinsic motivations, such as community pride, can
activate CBET and strategies for building effective partnerships with external stakeholders, including
tourism operators and government agencies.
Acknowledgments
The JSPS KAKENHI supported this work under grant JP22K12615.
Villa Amboró exemplifies this diversification by integrating CBET as a complementary income
activity to agriculture and animal breeding, which enhances resilience and stability.
While communities generally recognized both financial and non-financial benefits of CBET,
perceptions of fairness in compensation vary. Many participants feel under-compensated financially,
with San José de Chiquitos being a notable exception, suggesting potential gaps in transparency or
understanding around compensation. Furthermore, a noteworthy gap in community awareness around
CBET’s non-financial benefits indicates the need for improved education on its broader impact. A
pressing need for business and management skills was also identified as essential for long-term
viability (Factor 3).
Conflicting views on environmental impacts further reveal that while CBET is not widely seen as
threatening participants’ lifestyles or heritage, many acknowledged landscape changes due to tourism
activities. This mixed perception suggests a lack of long-term perspective on environmental impacts,
pointing to a need for environmental education as part of CBET’s sustainability strategy.
Another critical gap was the limited involvement of government (Factor 5), which pointed to the
importance of strategic public sector engagement to enhance CBET’s impact and longevity across
communities.
Overall, this study validates the proposed CBET model, highlighting the relevance of five key
factors —community pride, cooperative structures, local oversight, economic diversification, and
external support— for CBET development and sustainability. The model offers a practical
framework for understanding and addressing CBET challenges, providing insights that can inform
similar community-based ecotourism models globally.
Future research should explore how intrinsic and extrinsic motivations, such as community pride, can
activate CBET and strategies for building effective partnerships with external stakeholders, including
tourism operators and government agencies.
Acknowledgments
The JSPS KAKENHI supported this work under grant JP22K12615.
pág. 9029
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