pág. 7566
EFFECTS OF SHADOWING ON ADULT EFL
LEARNERS’ ORAL COMMUNICATIVE
COMPETENCE: A SYSTEMATIC REVIEW
EFECTOS DEL SHADOWING EN LA COMPETENCIA
COMUNICATIVA ORAL DE LOS ESTUDIANTES ADULTOS
DE INGLÉS COMO LENGUA EXTRANJERA: UNA REVISIÓN
SISTEMÁTICA
Blanca Lucia Cely Betancourt
Corporación Universitaria Minuto de Dios-UNIMINUTO
Jineth Karina García Cendales
Corporación Universitaria Minuto de Dios-UNIMINUTO
Anthony Josué Mago Cumana
Corporación Universitaria Minuto de Dios-UNIMINUTO
pág. 7567
DOI: https://doi.org/10.37811/cl_rcm.v9i6.21905
Effects of Shadowing on Adult EFL Learners’ Oral Communicative
Competence: A Systematic Review
Blanca Lucia Cely Betancourt1
bcely@uniminuto.edu.co
https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8059-5160 .
Corporación Universitaria Minuto de Dios-
UNIMINUTO
Jineth Karina García Cendales
jineth.garcia.c@uniminuto.edu.co
https://orcid.org/0009-0004-4617-9170
Corporación Universitaria Minuto de Dios-
UNIMINUTO
Anthony Josué Mago Cumana
anthony.mago@uniminuto.edu.co
https://orcid.org/0009-0001-1303-4096
Corporación Universitaria Minuto de Dios-
UNIMINUTO
ABSTRACT
This literature review synthesizes empirical evidence on the impact of shadowing on the oral proficiency
of adults learning English as a foreign language (EFL), with the aim of identifying which aspects
fluency, comprehensibility, and prosody are improved, and under which teaching conditions. A
systematic review of publications from 2019 to 2025 was conducted in multidisciplinary and specialized
databases, including Scopus, Web of Science, ERIC, Dialnet and Redalyc. Studies with adult EFL
learners that implemented shadowing and reported on oral performance were included, while theoretical
essays and works without performance measures were excluded. The selection process involved a
transparent series of steps: identification, screening, eligibility assessment and inclusion. Standardized
data extraction covered design, sample, implementation, instruments and results. The findings
demonstrate consistent enhancements in fluency (decreased pauses and increased continuity) and
comprehensibility/prosody when interventions surpass 6–8 weeks and incorporate shadowing alongside
modelling and feedback. In contrast, the effects on segmental accuracy are mixed, particularly in the
absence of explicit phonetic feedback. Affective benefits (increased confidence and decreased anxiety)
were also observed, being modulated by the speed and authenticity of the input. Moderators include the
duration of the intervention, the type of shadowing (prosodic vs. echo), the difficulty of the materials
and the degree of teacher scaffolding. Overall, shadowing emerges as an effective strategy for enhancing
fluency and prosody in adult EFL learners, with variable effects on segmental accuracy.
Keywords: Shadowing strategy; communicative competence; adult learners; EFL; andragogy.
1 Autor principal
Correspondencia: bcely@uniminuto.edu.co
DOI: https://doi.org/10.37811/cl_rcm.v9i6.21905
Effects of Shadowing on Adult EFL Learners’ Oral Communicative
Competence: A Systematic Review
Blanca Lucia Cely Betancourt1
bcely@uniminuto.edu.co
https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8059-5160 .
Corporación Universitaria Minuto de Dios-
UNIMINUTO
Jineth Karina García Cendales
jineth.garcia.c@uniminuto.edu.co
https://orcid.org/0009-0004-4617-9170
Corporación Universitaria Minuto de Dios-
UNIMINUTO
Anthony Josué Mago Cumana
anthony.mago@uniminuto.edu.co
https://orcid.org/0009-0001-1303-4096
Corporación Universitaria Minuto de Dios-
UNIMINUTO
ABSTRACT
This literature review synthesizes empirical evidence on the impact of shadowing on the oral proficiency
of adults learning English as a foreign language (EFL), with the aim of identifying which aspects
fluency, comprehensibility, and prosody are improved, and under which teaching conditions. A
systematic review of publications from 2019 to 2025 was conducted in multidisciplinary and specialized
databases, including Scopus, Web of Science, ERIC, Dialnet and Redalyc. Studies with adult EFL
learners that implemented shadowing and reported on oral performance were included, while theoretical
essays and works without performance measures were excluded. The selection process involved a
transparent series of steps: identification, screening, eligibility assessment and inclusion. Standardized
data extraction covered design, sample, implementation, instruments and results. The findings
demonstrate consistent enhancements in fluency (decreased pauses and increased continuity) and
comprehensibility/prosody when interventions surpass 6–8 weeks and incorporate shadowing alongside
modelling and feedback. In contrast, the effects on segmental accuracy are mixed, particularly in the
absence of explicit phonetic feedback. Affective benefits (increased confidence and decreased anxiety)
were also observed, being modulated by the speed and authenticity of the input. Moderators include the
duration of the intervention, the type of shadowing (prosodic vs. echo), the difficulty of the materials
and the degree of teacher scaffolding. Overall, shadowing emerges as an effective strategy for enhancing
fluency and prosody in adult EFL learners, with variable effects on segmental accuracy.
Keywords: Shadowing strategy; communicative competence; adult learners; EFL; andragogy.
1 Autor principal
Correspondencia: bcely@uniminuto.edu.co
pág. 7568
Efectos del shadowing en la competencia comunicativa oral de los
estudiantes adultos de inglés como lengua extranjera: una revisión
sistemática
RESUMEN
Esta revisión de literatura sintetiza la evidencia empírica sobre los efectos del shadowing en la
competencia oral de adultos que aprenden inglés como lengua extranjera (EFL), con el fin de precisar
qué dimensiones fluidez, comprensibilidad y prosodia se benefician y en qué condiciones didácticas. Se
llevó a cabo una revisión sistemática de publicaciones de 2019 a 2025 en bases multidisciplinares y
especializadas (Scopus, Web of Science, ERIC, Dialnet y Redalyc). Se incluyeron estudios empíricos
con población adulta en EFL que implementaran shadowing y reportaran resultados orales; se
excluyeron ensayos teóricos y trabajos sin medidas de desempeño. El proceso de selección siguió un
flujo transparente de identificación, cribado, elegibilidad e inclusión, con extracción estandarizada de
diseño, muestra, implementación, instrumentos y resultados. Los hallazgos muestran mejoras
consistentes en fluidez (reducción de pausas y mayor continuidad) y en comprensibilidad/prosodia
cuando las intervenciones superan las 6–8 semanas y combinan shadowing con modelado y
retroalimentación. En contraste, los efectos sobre la precisión segmental son mixtos, especialmente en
ausencia de retroalimentación fonética explícita. Se observan además beneficios afectivos (mayor
confianza y menor ansiedad), modulados por la velocidad y autenticidad del input. Actúan como
moderadores la duración de la intervención, el tipo de shadowing (prosódico vs. eco), la dificultad de
los materiales y el grado de andamiaje docente. En conjunto, el shadowing emerge como una estrategia
eficaz para potenciar fluidez y prosodia en adultos EFL, con efectos variables en la precisión segmental.
Palabras clave: Estrategia de shadowing; competencia comunicativa; estudiantes adultos; EFL;
andragogía.
Artículo recibido 10 diciembre 2025
Aceptado para publicación: 10 enero 2026
Efectos del shadowing en la competencia comunicativa oral de los
estudiantes adultos de inglés como lengua extranjera: una revisión
sistemática
RESUMEN
Esta revisión de literatura sintetiza la evidencia empírica sobre los efectos del shadowing en la
competencia oral de adultos que aprenden inglés como lengua extranjera (EFL), con el fin de precisar
qué dimensiones fluidez, comprensibilidad y prosodia se benefician y en qué condiciones didácticas. Se
llevó a cabo una revisión sistemática de publicaciones de 2019 a 2025 en bases multidisciplinares y
especializadas (Scopus, Web of Science, ERIC, Dialnet y Redalyc). Se incluyeron estudios empíricos
con población adulta en EFL que implementaran shadowing y reportaran resultados orales; se
excluyeron ensayos teóricos y trabajos sin medidas de desempeño. El proceso de selección siguió un
flujo transparente de identificación, cribado, elegibilidad e inclusión, con extracción estandarizada de
diseño, muestra, implementación, instrumentos y resultados. Los hallazgos muestran mejoras
consistentes en fluidez (reducción de pausas y mayor continuidad) y en comprensibilidad/prosodia
cuando las intervenciones superan las 6–8 semanas y combinan shadowing con modelado y
retroalimentación. En contraste, los efectos sobre la precisión segmental son mixtos, especialmente en
ausencia de retroalimentación fonética explícita. Se observan además beneficios afectivos (mayor
confianza y menor ansiedad), modulados por la velocidad y autenticidad del input. Actúan como
moderadores la duración de la intervención, el tipo de shadowing (prosódico vs. eco), la dificultad de
los materiales y el grado de andamiaje docente. En conjunto, el shadowing emerge como una estrategia
eficaz para potenciar fluidez y prosodia en adultos EFL, con efectos variables en la precisión segmental.
Palabras clave: Estrategia de shadowing; competencia comunicativa; estudiantes adultos; EFL;
andragogía.
Artículo recibido 10 diciembre 2025
Aceptado para publicación: 10 enero 2026
pág. 7569
INTRODUCTION
Learning a second or foreign language can be a complex challenge and even more so when it is done at
an advanced age. It is no secret that for Spanish speakers, English language acquisition is not easy. It is
worth noting that, unlike younger learners, older people already have a lifetime of experiences,
established cognitive patterns, and different motivational factors that influence their learning journey
when approaching this new language. Even so, the relevance and importance of learning this language
is becoming more apparent every day. As some authors state: “We live in a globalized and highly
technological world, where the importance of knowing a language is a social necessity, regardless of
age” (Corral-Robles et al., 2024, p. 381). In consideration of English's pervasive presence across diverse
global contexts, including yet not limited to media, international forums, business, finance, politics, and
diplomacy, it is evident that English enjoys extensive utilization on a global scale. This is an integral
component of the overarching phenomenon of globalization, Betancourt & Ramos (2024). The English
language is the most widely spoken international language. The present situation is the result of a
combination of political, economic and cultural hegemony exercised by the United States over the last
century, together with the lingering influences of the colonial British Empire, (Muñoz et al.,2025).
Considering the recent developments in the field of education, there is an imperative to devise novel
pedagogical approaches that cater to the diverse needs of all demographics, including, young and older
learners. These methodologies must emphasise the significance of participatory and experiential
learning, fostering collaboration and equipping students with the competencies to become autonomous
and effective learners, (Betancourt et al.,2025. Regarding older learners, Klimova (2018) notes that,
learning a foreign language has a positive influence on white and grey matter structures in older adults,
suggesting that language study offers not only communicative benefits, but also neurological
advantages. This research aims to analyse effective methodologies and strategies for teaching English
to elderly students, considering their specific cognitive characteristics, motivational factors and learning
challenges.
Although some research has shown that language acquisition differs significantly between younger and
older students, there remains a gap in our understanding of the most effective pedagogical approaches
specifically tailored to older students in the Colombian context. This systematic review contributes to
INTRODUCTION
Learning a second or foreign language can be a complex challenge and even more so when it is done at
an advanced age. It is no secret that for Spanish speakers, English language acquisition is not easy. It is
worth noting that, unlike younger learners, older people already have a lifetime of experiences,
established cognitive patterns, and different motivational factors that influence their learning journey
when approaching this new language. Even so, the relevance and importance of learning this language
is becoming more apparent every day. As some authors state: “We live in a globalized and highly
technological world, where the importance of knowing a language is a social necessity, regardless of
age” (Corral-Robles et al., 2024, p. 381). In consideration of English's pervasive presence across diverse
global contexts, including yet not limited to media, international forums, business, finance, politics, and
diplomacy, it is evident that English enjoys extensive utilization on a global scale. This is an integral
component of the overarching phenomenon of globalization, Betancourt & Ramos (2024). The English
language is the most widely spoken international language. The present situation is the result of a
combination of political, economic and cultural hegemony exercised by the United States over the last
century, together with the lingering influences of the colonial British Empire, (Muñoz et al.,2025).
Considering the recent developments in the field of education, there is an imperative to devise novel
pedagogical approaches that cater to the diverse needs of all demographics, including, young and older
learners. These methodologies must emphasise the significance of participatory and experiential
learning, fostering collaboration and equipping students with the competencies to become autonomous
and effective learners, (Betancourt et al.,2025. Regarding older learners, Klimova (2018) notes that,
learning a foreign language has a positive influence on white and grey matter structures in older adults,
suggesting that language study offers not only communicative benefits, but also neurological
advantages. This research aims to analyse effective methodologies and strategies for teaching English
to elderly students, considering their specific cognitive characteristics, motivational factors and learning
challenges.
Although some research has shown that language acquisition differs significantly between younger and
older students, there remains a gap in our understanding of the most effective pedagogical approaches
specifically tailored to older students in the Colombian context. This systematic review contributes to
pág. 7570
this knowledge by examining actual classroom experiences, teaching methodologies, and learning
outcomes at Queen's English College. Through systematic observation, analysis and evaluation of
instructional strategies, this research seeks to identify best practices that can enhance the English
language learning experience of one adult learner and provide educators with practical guidance for this
important demographic group.
The research reviewed shows that shadowing is an effective strategy for the development of oral skills
in English teaching contexts, although approached from different approaches and populations. Jeremy
and Spandagou (2025) showed that ethnographic shadowing allows us to understand educational
processes and professional practices that are usually invisible, which provides a useful methodological
framework for studying the teaching of English to adults. Karisma (2025) found improvements in
pronunciation and intonation in high school students, showing the usefulness of guided practice. Ali
(2025) systematized the importance of shadowing in the activation of working memory and oral fluency,
offering a central theoretical basis. Whitwortadvancese (2025) reinforced these conclusions from a
systematic review that reports advances in intelligibility and prosody, although with variations in
segmental precision.
On the other hand, studies in Asia and Africa provide empirical evidence on linguistic and affective
effects. Mu and Wasuntarasophit (2025) demonstrated improvements in listening comprehension,
pronunciation, and motivation, along with a decrease in anxiety, a key aspect in adult learners. El
Moussaoui (2025) highlighted the contribution of shadowing to beginner-level listening skills,
especially in phonemic segmentation and perception. Tuilan et al. (2025) offered a practical basis for
integrating shadowing with fluency and pronunciation activities, aimed at overcoming emotional
barriers such as speech insecurity. In the Colombian context, Robayo Acuña (2025) evidenced the need
for complementary strategies to strengthen oral fluency in adults, while Duong Hong (2025) confirmed
sustained improvements in fluency, pronunciation, and confidence through the continuous use of
shadowing with authentic materials.
Theoretical Framework
This section aims to establish the theoretical basis for understanding the challenges inherent in the
process of teaching and learning English as a foreign language (EFL) in the context of adult education,
this knowledge by examining actual classroom experiences, teaching methodologies, and learning
outcomes at Queen's English College. Through systematic observation, analysis and evaluation of
instructional strategies, this research seeks to identify best practices that can enhance the English
language learning experience of one adult learner and provide educators with practical guidance for this
important demographic group.
The research reviewed shows that shadowing is an effective strategy for the development of oral skills
in English teaching contexts, although approached from different approaches and populations. Jeremy
and Spandagou (2025) showed that ethnographic shadowing allows us to understand educational
processes and professional practices that are usually invisible, which provides a useful methodological
framework for studying the teaching of English to adults. Karisma (2025) found improvements in
pronunciation and intonation in high school students, showing the usefulness of guided practice. Ali
(2025) systematized the importance of shadowing in the activation of working memory and oral fluency,
offering a central theoretical basis. Whitwortadvancese (2025) reinforced these conclusions from a
systematic review that reports advances in intelligibility and prosody, although with variations in
segmental precision.
On the other hand, studies in Asia and Africa provide empirical evidence on linguistic and affective
effects. Mu and Wasuntarasophit (2025) demonstrated improvements in listening comprehension,
pronunciation, and motivation, along with a decrease in anxiety, a key aspect in adult learners. El
Moussaoui (2025) highlighted the contribution of shadowing to beginner-level listening skills,
especially in phonemic segmentation and perception. Tuilan et al. (2025) offered a practical basis for
integrating shadowing with fluency and pronunciation activities, aimed at overcoming emotional
barriers such as speech insecurity. In the Colombian context, Robayo Acuña (2025) evidenced the need
for complementary strategies to strengthen oral fluency in adults, while Duong Hong (2025) confirmed
sustained improvements in fluency, pronunciation, and confidence through the continuous use of
shadowing with authentic materials.
Theoretical Framework
This section aims to establish the theoretical basis for understanding the challenges inherent in the
process of teaching and learning English as a foreign language (EFL) in the context of adult education,
pág. 7571
specifically for individuals over 50 years old. Here, we will explore the characteristics of adult learners
and the teaching methodologies best suited to their needs. This is key to addressing the particularities
and challenges of this demographic group.
Shadowing strategy
To begin with, the shadowing strategy defined as the immediate or near-simultaneous repetition of
auditory input in the target language has recently regained prominence in the field of adult second-
language acquisition. According to Talapova and Iliyas (2024), this approach has demonstrated notable
effectiveness among intermediate and advanced learners, yielding measurable gains in pronunciation,
fluency, and intonation following a mixed-method intervention. These findings reinforce the theoretical
linkage between auditory input, oral production, and cognitive processing in adult learners. From a
theoretical standpoint, the practice aligns with Krashen’s Comprehensible Input Theory and with
phonological automatization processes achieved through repetition, adapted to the heightened
metacognitive capacities characteristic of adult learning.
In addition, when addressing the pedagogical and didactic foundations applicable to adult learners, it is
essential to acknowledge that andragogy emphasizes relevance, learner autonomy, metacognitive
feedback, and self-reflective awareness throughout the learning process. Within this framework, the
didactic structure of the shadowing method unfolds through three interdependent phases: (a)
familiarization with auditory input, (b) active simultaneous repetition (the shadowing stage proper), and
(c) reflective or metacognitive evaluation. Duong and Nguyen (2025) conceptualize this sequence
through a six-step model grounded in Imitative Learning Theory, Cognitive Load Theory (Sweller,
2011), and the Input/Output Hypotheses.
Such integration underscores that adult learners are not merely imitators of phonological forms but
active monitors of their speech, employing phonetic awareness and articulatory planning to refine their
linguistic performance. Furthermore, the implementation of this strategy in adult education settings
requires a thoughtful alignment between learning stages, pedagogical tasks, and instructional materials.
During the familiarization phase, learners engage with authentic or pedagogically adapted audio input
such as professional discourses or thematically relevant content accompanied by textual transcripts
when available.
specifically for individuals over 50 years old. Here, we will explore the characteristics of adult learners
and the teaching methodologies best suited to their needs. This is key to addressing the particularities
and challenges of this demographic group.
Shadowing strategy
To begin with, the shadowing strategy defined as the immediate or near-simultaneous repetition of
auditory input in the target language has recently regained prominence in the field of adult second-
language acquisition. According to Talapova and Iliyas (2024), this approach has demonstrated notable
effectiveness among intermediate and advanced learners, yielding measurable gains in pronunciation,
fluency, and intonation following a mixed-method intervention. These findings reinforce the theoretical
linkage between auditory input, oral production, and cognitive processing in adult learners. From a
theoretical standpoint, the practice aligns with Krashen’s Comprehensible Input Theory and with
phonological automatization processes achieved through repetition, adapted to the heightened
metacognitive capacities characteristic of adult learning.
In addition, when addressing the pedagogical and didactic foundations applicable to adult learners, it is
essential to acknowledge that andragogy emphasizes relevance, learner autonomy, metacognitive
feedback, and self-reflective awareness throughout the learning process. Within this framework, the
didactic structure of the shadowing method unfolds through three interdependent phases: (a)
familiarization with auditory input, (b) active simultaneous repetition (the shadowing stage proper), and
(c) reflective or metacognitive evaluation. Duong and Nguyen (2025) conceptualize this sequence
through a six-step model grounded in Imitative Learning Theory, Cognitive Load Theory (Sweller,
2011), and the Input/Output Hypotheses.
Such integration underscores that adult learners are not merely imitators of phonological forms but
active monitors of their speech, employing phonetic awareness and articulatory planning to refine their
linguistic performance. Furthermore, the implementation of this strategy in adult education settings
requires a thoughtful alignment between learning stages, pedagogical tasks, and instructional materials.
During the familiarization phase, learners engage with authentic or pedagogically adapted audio input
such as professional discourses or thematically relevant content accompanied by textual transcripts
when available.
pág. 7572
This phase encourages observation of prosodic features, including rhythm, pauses, and intonation,
followed by brief reflection on emerging phonological patterns. In the active shadowing phase, learners
attempt to reproduce the input in near-synchrony, focusing on matching the speaker’s rhythm, fluency,
and intonation. Instructor feedback or self-recording techniques facilitate targeted articulatory
refinement. The final reflection and consolidation phase invites learners to compare their production
with the original, identify prosodic or segmental discrepancies, and design subsequent practice cycles
incorporating more complex linguistic input. This cyclical progression fosters gradual internalization
and phonological automatization within adult learners.
From a broader pedagogical didactic perspective, several recommendations enhance the strategy’s
efficacy for adult education. First, instructional materials should be authentic and contextually
meaningful to the learner’s personal or professional interests. Second, complexity should increase
progressively through longer utterances, accelerated speech rates, or reduced scaffolding.
Third, educators should cultivate self-regulatory habits such as recording, comparison, self-assessment,
and reflective journaling. Fourth, feedback should prioritize prosodic and suprasegmental elements such
as rhythm, stress, and intonation—over segmental correction alone. Finally, shadowing tasks should be
integrated into communicative activities (e.g., discussions, presentations, or role-plays) to promote
transferability and prevent the technique from remaining isolated. Through these principles, shadowing
evolves into an andragogical model grounded in autonomy, relevance, and metacognitive reflection.
Adult Learners
The concept of adult learners refers to grown-up students who are no longer children, so this category
of learners needs specific treatment and methods to meet their state of affairs, needs, interests, and
expectations (Loumim, n.d.). These students are characterized by a series of principles that directly
influence their learning trajectory.
Adult learners are distinguished by clearly articulated learning goals and precise, task-oriented
objectives; a pronounced disposition toward self-direction in planning, monitoring, and regulating their
study; and a strong sense of accountability for their own progress. Equally salient is the experiential
capital they bring to instruction their prior knowledge and professional/personal experiences which can
This phase encourages observation of prosodic features, including rhythm, pauses, and intonation,
followed by brief reflection on emerging phonological patterns. In the active shadowing phase, learners
attempt to reproduce the input in near-synchrony, focusing on matching the speaker’s rhythm, fluency,
and intonation. Instructor feedback or self-recording techniques facilitate targeted articulatory
refinement. The final reflection and consolidation phase invites learners to compare their production
with the original, identify prosodic or segmental discrepancies, and design subsequent practice cycles
incorporating more complex linguistic input. This cyclical progression fosters gradual internalization
and phonological automatization within adult learners.
From a broader pedagogical didactic perspective, several recommendations enhance the strategy’s
efficacy for adult education. First, instructional materials should be authentic and contextually
meaningful to the learner’s personal or professional interests. Second, complexity should increase
progressively through longer utterances, accelerated speech rates, or reduced scaffolding.
Third, educators should cultivate self-regulatory habits such as recording, comparison, self-assessment,
and reflective journaling. Fourth, feedback should prioritize prosodic and suprasegmental elements such
as rhythm, stress, and intonation—over segmental correction alone. Finally, shadowing tasks should be
integrated into communicative activities (e.g., discussions, presentations, or role-plays) to promote
transferability and prevent the technique from remaining isolated. Through these principles, shadowing
evolves into an andragogical model grounded in autonomy, relevance, and metacognitive reflection.
Adult Learners
The concept of adult learners refers to grown-up students who are no longer children, so this category
of learners needs specific treatment and methods to meet their state of affairs, needs, interests, and
expectations (Loumim, n.d.). These students are characterized by a series of principles that directly
influence their learning trajectory.
Adult learners are distinguished by clearly articulated learning goals and precise, task-oriented
objectives; a pronounced disposition toward self-direction in planning, monitoring, and regulating their
study; and a strong sense of accountability for their own progress. Equally salient is the experiential
capital they bring to instruction their prior knowledge and professional/personal experiences which can
pág. 7573
be actively integrated and leveraged to scaffold new learning and promote transfer across contexts
(Florez & Burt, 2001).
These characteristics imply that adult learners "are usually driven by certain objectives that allow them
to decide how to handle their learning trajectory, until they achieve their aims" Their autonomy and
defined objectives are key drivers in their educational process. Studies like Parzyck (2024), although
focused on first-year university students, highlight the importance of treating them as adult learners,
emphasizing their independence, self-direction, and the value of their prior experiences characteristics
that are even more pronounced in the older population. This reinforces the idea that adults possess
distinctive traits that demand personalized educational approaches.
The study of language learning in adulthood requires a particular consideration of the characteristics of
these students, which differ significantly from those of younger learners. This distinction is fundamental
for comprehending the pedagogical specificities that must be applied in their learning process to foster
greater motivation, engagement, and problem-solving skills in adult learners, allowing them to
personalize their education.
Teaching English to Adult Learners
In the field of adult second language acquisition (SLA), current research emphasizes the intricate
interaction among cognitive, linguistic, and social dimensions, as well as the growing role of
technological mediation in language development. According to Alsaedi (2024), the evolution of SLA
research over the past five decades reveals a pressing need to reconceptualize language learning as a
process that integrates the brain, the mind, and the learner’s agency into a unified framework of cognitive
engagement.
This paradigm shift encourages moving beyond traditional behaviourist or generative models toward
more integrative approaches such as usage-based linguistics and complex dynamic systems (CDS)
theory, which explain how variability, non-linearity, and emergent developmental trajectories
characterize adult language learning. In this regard, Hulstijn (2024) extends the discussion through his
Basic Language Cognition (BLC) theory, proposing that proficiency emerges from usage frequency and
interactional contexts, thus underscoring the dynamic and adaptive nature of linguistic competence.
be actively integrated and leveraged to scaffold new learning and promote transfer across contexts
(Florez & Burt, 2001).
These characteristics imply that adult learners "are usually driven by certain objectives that allow them
to decide how to handle their learning trajectory, until they achieve their aims" Their autonomy and
defined objectives are key drivers in their educational process. Studies like Parzyck (2024), although
focused on first-year university students, highlight the importance of treating them as adult learners,
emphasizing their independence, self-direction, and the value of their prior experiences characteristics
that are even more pronounced in the older population. This reinforces the idea that adults possess
distinctive traits that demand personalized educational approaches.
The study of language learning in adulthood requires a particular consideration of the characteristics of
these students, which differ significantly from those of younger learners. This distinction is fundamental
for comprehending the pedagogical specificities that must be applied in their learning process to foster
greater motivation, engagement, and problem-solving skills in adult learners, allowing them to
personalize their education.
Teaching English to Adult Learners
In the field of adult second language acquisition (SLA), current research emphasizes the intricate
interaction among cognitive, linguistic, and social dimensions, as well as the growing role of
technological mediation in language development. According to Alsaedi (2024), the evolution of SLA
research over the past five decades reveals a pressing need to reconceptualize language learning as a
process that integrates the brain, the mind, and the learner’s agency into a unified framework of cognitive
engagement.
This paradigm shift encourages moving beyond traditional behaviourist or generative models toward
more integrative approaches such as usage-based linguistics and complex dynamic systems (CDS)
theory, which explain how variability, non-linearity, and emergent developmental trajectories
characterize adult language learning. In this regard, Hulstijn (2024) extends the discussion through his
Basic Language Cognition (BLC) theory, proposing that proficiency emerges from usage frequency and
interactional contexts, thus underscoring the dynamic and adaptive nature of linguistic competence.
pág. 7574
From a pedagogical standpoint, adult learners of English benefit most from instructional models that
balance input, attention, and reflection. The Input–Interaction process prioritizes exposure to meaningful
linguistic input and opportunities for negotiation of meaning in authentic communicative contexts. This
approach, while rooted in Long’s Interaction Hypothesis, has been redefined by recent scholarship to
account for adult learners’ metacognitive and strategic abilities that enhance input processing and
retention.
The second process, Attention to Form, aligns with the principles of cognitive-interactionist theory,
emphasizing the significance of explicit instruction, feedback, and metalinguistic awareness in helping
adult learners surpass developmental thresholds. This perspective recognizes that adult learners, unlike
children, can consciously direct attention to linguistic form and adjust their output based on corrective
input. The third process, Reflection and Self-Regulation, integrates the principles of andragogy and
metacognition, encouraging learners to set personal goals, monitor their performance, and engage in
reflective cycles that consolidate procedural knowledge into fluent communication patterns.
Recent empirical findings also reveal that social and technological factors play an increasingly decisive
role in adult English learning. Studies on mobile-assisted language learning (MALL) demonstrate that
sustained engagement with technology-mediated platforms fosters significant improvements in
linguistic competence, although such engagement often follows cyclical patterns of active use,
temporary disengagement, and re-engagement (Musazadeh, et al., 2024). Furthermore, Gudmestad and
Kanwit (2025) highlight the sociolinguistic dimension of adult SLA, noting that effective instruction
must expose learners to variation in dialects, registers, and identities, thereby enabling them to navigate
linguistic diversity and social meaning within English-speaking environments.
The integration of these theoretical and pedagogical perspectives leads to a structured and cyclical
learning model for adults, consisting of three essential stages. The first stage, Familiarization and Input
Exposure, involves the selection of authentic, goal-oriented materials such as professional speeches or
culturally relevant content, accompanied by scaffolds like transcripts and guided listening tasks. The
second stage, Form-Focused Interaction and Practice, encourages learners to participate in interactive
activities that require noticing, hypothesis testing, and production under communicative pressure, thus
facilitating automatization.
From a pedagogical standpoint, adult learners of English benefit most from instructional models that
balance input, attention, and reflection. The Input–Interaction process prioritizes exposure to meaningful
linguistic input and opportunities for negotiation of meaning in authentic communicative contexts. This
approach, while rooted in Long’s Interaction Hypothesis, has been redefined by recent scholarship to
account for adult learners’ metacognitive and strategic abilities that enhance input processing and
retention.
The second process, Attention to Form, aligns with the principles of cognitive-interactionist theory,
emphasizing the significance of explicit instruction, feedback, and metalinguistic awareness in helping
adult learners surpass developmental thresholds. This perspective recognizes that adult learners, unlike
children, can consciously direct attention to linguistic form and adjust their output based on corrective
input. The third process, Reflection and Self-Regulation, integrates the principles of andragogy and
metacognition, encouraging learners to set personal goals, monitor their performance, and engage in
reflective cycles that consolidate procedural knowledge into fluent communication patterns.
Recent empirical findings also reveal that social and technological factors play an increasingly decisive
role in adult English learning. Studies on mobile-assisted language learning (MALL) demonstrate that
sustained engagement with technology-mediated platforms fosters significant improvements in
linguistic competence, although such engagement often follows cyclical patterns of active use,
temporary disengagement, and re-engagement (Musazadeh, et al., 2024). Furthermore, Gudmestad and
Kanwit (2025) highlight the sociolinguistic dimension of adult SLA, noting that effective instruction
must expose learners to variation in dialects, registers, and identities, thereby enabling them to navigate
linguistic diversity and social meaning within English-speaking environments.
The integration of these theoretical and pedagogical perspectives leads to a structured and cyclical
learning model for adults, consisting of three essential stages. The first stage, Familiarization and Input
Exposure, involves the selection of authentic, goal-oriented materials such as professional speeches or
culturally relevant content, accompanied by scaffolds like transcripts and guided listening tasks. The
second stage, Form-Focused Interaction and Practice, encourages learners to participate in interactive
activities that require noticing, hypothesis testing, and production under communicative pressure, thus
facilitating automatization.
pág. 7575
Finally, the Reflection and Autonomy Building phase allows learners to self-assess progress, analyze
their recorded output, and plan for continued development using incrementally complex input. This
cyclical design resonates with the principles of complex systems theory, where learning evolves through
iterative adaptation, feedback, and self-organization. Ultimately, the pedagogical architecture of adult
English learning redefines proficiency not as the accumulation of isolated linguistic elements but as an
emergent, dynamic system shaped by cognitive control, social participation, motivation, and
technological mediation. Instruction that promotes relevance, autonomy, and metacognitive engagement
transforms language teaching into a process of empowerment, enabling adult learners to actively
reconstruct their linguistic competence through continuous reflection and interaction.
Andragogy
Andragogy is defined as the theory and art of guiding adults in their learning process, a concept
popularized by Malcolm Knowles (Knowles et al., 1978). This discipline fundamentally distinguishes
itself from pedagogy, which has traditionally focused on child education and learning. Unlike pedagogy,
andragogy centers on the particularities of the adult's personality, recognizing them as an autonomous
subject with intrinsically directed learning (Wang and Farmer, 2008). Coley (2022) reinforces this idea
by investigating how instructors' perception of andragogical orientation influences an autonomy
supportive teaching style, highlighting the application of adult learning principles in pedagogical
practices.
Key Principles and Definitions
Malcolm Knowles's principles of andragogy, as described by Knowles et al. (1998), are found on an
adult student's maturity and are considered essential for understanding how adults learn. This theory has
greatly influenced the field of adult learning. Complementing this, Savicevic (1999) observed that
andragogy in Yugoslav universities emerged from pedagogy and, despite its development, remained an
integral part of pedagogical studies. Furthermore, Hamlin (2020) emphasizes the importance of having
a clear definition of adult learning to design truly effective andragogy. Na Nagara (2020) delves into the
integration of these principles through "pedandragogy," a hybrid model that seeks to promote effective
learning environments and self-efficacy by synthesizing key elements from both pedagogy and
andragogy, suggesting that a single approach is often insufficient.
Finally, the Reflection and Autonomy Building phase allows learners to self-assess progress, analyze
their recorded output, and plan for continued development using incrementally complex input. This
cyclical design resonates with the principles of complex systems theory, where learning evolves through
iterative adaptation, feedback, and self-organization. Ultimately, the pedagogical architecture of adult
English learning redefines proficiency not as the accumulation of isolated linguistic elements but as an
emergent, dynamic system shaped by cognitive control, social participation, motivation, and
technological mediation. Instruction that promotes relevance, autonomy, and metacognitive engagement
transforms language teaching into a process of empowerment, enabling adult learners to actively
reconstruct their linguistic competence through continuous reflection and interaction.
Andragogy
Andragogy is defined as the theory and art of guiding adults in their learning process, a concept
popularized by Malcolm Knowles (Knowles et al., 1978). This discipline fundamentally distinguishes
itself from pedagogy, which has traditionally focused on child education and learning. Unlike pedagogy,
andragogy centers on the particularities of the adult's personality, recognizing them as an autonomous
subject with intrinsically directed learning (Wang and Farmer, 2008). Coley (2022) reinforces this idea
by investigating how instructors' perception of andragogical orientation influences an autonomy
supportive teaching style, highlighting the application of adult learning principles in pedagogical
practices.
Key Principles and Definitions
Malcolm Knowles's principles of andragogy, as described by Knowles et al. (1998), are found on an
adult student's maturity and are considered essential for understanding how adults learn. This theory has
greatly influenced the field of adult learning. Complementing this, Savicevic (1999) observed that
andragogy in Yugoslav universities emerged from pedagogy and, despite its development, remained an
integral part of pedagogical studies. Furthermore, Hamlin (2020) emphasizes the importance of having
a clear definition of adult learning to design truly effective andragogy. Na Nagara (2020) delves into the
integration of these principles through "pedandragogy," a hybrid model that seeks to promote effective
learning environments and self-efficacy by synthesizing key elements from both pedagogy and
andragogy, suggesting that a single approach is often insufficient.
pág. 7576
Andragogical principles have not only been instrumental in popularizing the theory of adult learning but
also offer valuable tools for diagnosing and addressing the various problems and obstacles that adult
students may encounter on their path to effective learning.
METHODOLOGY
For the present research, a systematic review of the relevant literature was carried out. A total of thirteen
scholarly articles were selected, identified through an in-depth search of various academic databases,
such as Scopus, Web of Science, Google Scholar, JSTOR, and ProQuest Central / ProQuest Ebook
Central. The selection criteria for these articles focused on research related to the distinctive
characteristics of adult learners, success factors in foreign language learning for older adults, the use of
gamification in teaching English to this age group, the integration of digital tools and technology in
teaching English to adults, including perceptions and challenges, specific language skills, such as
pronunciation in older adults, experiences of older adults in online English classes, affective factors,
such as communicative anxiety, perceptions of adult learners' readiness for online teaching, with direct
applicability to the integration of ICT in English teaching, among others. It is worth noting that none of
these articles should be older than 5 years, to maintain a current source of information.
Once selected, the articles were critically and analytically reviewed. For this purpose, a digital Excel
spreadsheet was used to systematize the key information of each study, including the methodology
applied, the participants involved and the direct contribution that each article made to the objectives of
the present research. This process involved an in-depth analysis of previous findings and the
identification of gaps in existing knowledge.
Findings
The studies reviewed, predominantly published in 2025, encompass qualitative and mixed methods
designs, systematic reviews, and theoretical-documentary analyses, with participants including
secondary school students (Indonesia; China), university students (Vietnam), and EFL teachers
(Colombia), as well as reviews without direct sampling (United Kingdom; Morocco; Ecuador), and a
qualitative inquiry into shadowing as a method with fieldwork (Australia). Secondary school-based
research employing mixed and narrative methods has reported enhancements in pronunciation, fluency,
intonation/rhythm, listening comprehension, and confidence.
Andragogical principles have not only been instrumental in popularizing the theory of adult learning but
also offer valuable tools for diagnosing and addressing the various problems and obstacles that adult
students may encounter on their path to effective learning.
METHODOLOGY
For the present research, a systematic review of the relevant literature was carried out. A total of thirteen
scholarly articles were selected, identified through an in-depth search of various academic databases,
such as Scopus, Web of Science, Google Scholar, JSTOR, and ProQuest Central / ProQuest Ebook
Central. The selection criteria for these articles focused on research related to the distinctive
characteristics of adult learners, success factors in foreign language learning for older adults, the use of
gamification in teaching English to this age group, the integration of digital tools and technology in
teaching English to adults, including perceptions and challenges, specific language skills, such as
pronunciation in older adults, experiences of older adults in online English classes, affective factors,
such as communicative anxiety, perceptions of adult learners' readiness for online teaching, with direct
applicability to the integration of ICT in English teaching, among others. It is worth noting that none of
these articles should be older than 5 years, to maintain a current source of information.
Once selected, the articles were critically and analytically reviewed. For this purpose, a digital Excel
spreadsheet was used to systematize the key information of each study, including the methodology
applied, the participants involved and the direct contribution that each article made to the objectives of
the present research. This process involved an in-depth analysis of previous findings and the
identification of gaps in existing knowledge.
Findings
The studies reviewed, predominantly published in 2025, encompass qualitative and mixed methods
designs, systematic reviews, and theoretical-documentary analyses, with participants including
secondary school students (Indonesia; China), university students (Vietnam), and EFL teachers
(Colombia), as well as reviews without direct sampling (United Kingdom; Morocco; Ecuador), and a
qualitative inquiry into shadowing as a method with fieldwork (Australia). Secondary school-based
research employing mixed and narrative methods has reported enhancements in pronunciation, fluency,
intonation/rhythm, listening comprehension, and confidence.
pág. 7577
These enhancements have been observed in conjunction with a reduction in anxiety when authentic
materials and modelling are utilized (Indonesia; China). A recent study conducted at university level in
Vietnam has reported an increase in pronunciation, fluency, and self-efficacy, alongside favorable
attitudes towards authentic materials. In the field of education, qualitative research conducted in
Colombia indicates that educators conceptualize fluency as both a global competence and a distinct skill.
However, the available support materials provide minimal scaffolding. Systematic reviews (United
Kingdom; Morocco) have reached a consensus on the beneficial effects of shadowing on
comprehensibility, prosody, fluency, and bottom-up skills (phonemic perception, word recognition),
particularly at initial levels. Concurrently, a PRISMA-based review in Ecuador underscores that
comprehensible multimodal input, encompassing podcasts, audiovisuals, and gamification, enhances
listening comprehension. The theoretical analysis from Vietnam integrates frameworks such as
Input/Output and Cognitive Load and proposes a six-step model. By contrast, the Australian study
positions shadowing as a distinctive qualitative method for exploring professional collaboration, while
warning of ethical and logistical challenges. The evidence suggests that shadowing promotes key
dimensions of oral and listening competence, modulated by student level, input authenticity, and
instructional design.
Table 1 Previous Studies
Title Country - Year Methodology Finding
Shadowing as Qualitative
Inquiry: Exploring its
Potential and Limitations in
Educational Research
Australia, 2025
Qualitative
shadowing;
field
observations
and semi-
structured
interviews
Highlighted shadowing as a
distinct qualitative method
enabling deep insights into
professional collaboration
and field dynamics; identified
ethical and logistical
challenges.
Investigating Shadowing
Technique to Reinforce
Indonesia, 2025
Qualitative
narrative
Shadowing improved
pronunciation, articulation,
These enhancements have been observed in conjunction with a reduction in anxiety when authentic
materials and modelling are utilized (Indonesia; China). A recent study conducted at university level in
Vietnam has reported an increase in pronunciation, fluency, and self-efficacy, alongside favorable
attitudes towards authentic materials. In the field of education, qualitative research conducted in
Colombia indicates that educators conceptualize fluency as both a global competence and a distinct skill.
However, the available support materials provide minimal scaffolding. Systematic reviews (United
Kingdom; Morocco) have reached a consensus on the beneficial effects of shadowing on
comprehensibility, prosody, fluency, and bottom-up skills (phonemic perception, word recognition),
particularly at initial levels. Concurrently, a PRISMA-based review in Ecuador underscores that
comprehensible multimodal input, encompassing podcasts, audiovisuals, and gamification, enhances
listening comprehension. The theoretical analysis from Vietnam integrates frameworks such as
Input/Output and Cognitive Load and proposes a six-step model. By contrast, the Australian study
positions shadowing as a distinctive qualitative method for exploring professional collaboration, while
warning of ethical and logistical challenges. The evidence suggests that shadowing promotes key
dimensions of oral and listening competence, modulated by student level, input authenticity, and
instructional design.
Table 1 Previous Studies
Title Country - Year Methodology Finding
Shadowing as Qualitative
Inquiry: Exploring its
Potential and Limitations in
Educational Research
Australia, 2025
Qualitative
shadowing;
field
observations
and semi-
structured
interviews
Highlighted shadowing as a
distinct qualitative method
enabling deep insights into
professional collaboration
and field dynamics; identified
ethical and logistical
challenges.
Investigating Shadowing
Technique to Reinforce
Indonesia, 2025
Qualitative
narrative
Shadowing improved
pronunciation, articulation,
pág. 7578
English Pronunciation
Skills for Senior High
School in Jakarta
inquiry;
observations
and semi-
structured
interviews
and confidence; helped
learners with intonation and
rhythm.
A Theoretical Overview of
the Shadowing Technique
in Developing Listening
and Speaking Skills
Vietnam, 2025
Theoretical
analysis;
literature
review
Summarized theories
supporting shadowing
(Input/Output Hypotheses,
Cognitive Load Theory);
proposed six-step model to
improve pronunciation,
fluency, and reflexes.
A Systematic Review of
Research on the Use of
Shadowing for Second
Language Pronunciation
Teaching
United
Kingdom, 2025
Systematic
literature
review
(qualitative
synthesis)
Shadowing improves
comprehensibility, fluency,
and prosody; learners view it
as enjoyable and effective.
Effects of the Shadowing
Technique on English
Listening Comprehension
for Chinese EFL Senior
High School Students
China, 2025
Mixed
methods: pre-
/post-tests,
questionnaires,
and student
logs
Significant improvement in
listening comprehension,
pronunciation, motivation,
and memory; enhanced focus
and reduced anxiety.
Shadowing for Developing
EFL Learners’ Bottom-up
Listening Skills: A
Systematic Review
Morocco, 2025
Systematic
review of
studies (1997–
2023)
Shadowing improves
phoneme perception, word
recognition, and bottom-up
listening comprehension;
English Pronunciation
Skills for Senior High
School in Jakarta
inquiry;
observations
and semi-
structured
interviews
and confidence; helped
learners with intonation and
rhythm.
A Theoretical Overview of
the Shadowing Technique
in Developing Listening
and Speaking Skills
Vietnam, 2025
Theoretical
analysis;
literature
review
Summarized theories
supporting shadowing
(Input/Output Hypotheses,
Cognitive Load Theory);
proposed six-step model to
improve pronunciation,
fluency, and reflexes.
A Systematic Review of
Research on the Use of
Shadowing for Second
Language Pronunciation
Teaching
United
Kingdom, 2025
Systematic
literature
review
(qualitative
synthesis)
Shadowing improves
comprehensibility, fluency,
and prosody; learners view it
as enjoyable and effective.
Effects of the Shadowing
Technique on English
Listening Comprehension
for Chinese EFL Senior
High School Students
China, 2025
Mixed
methods: pre-
/post-tests,
questionnaires,
and student
logs
Significant improvement in
listening comprehension,
pronunciation, motivation,
and memory; enhanced focus
and reduced anxiety.
Shadowing for Developing
EFL Learners’ Bottom-up
Listening Skills: A
Systematic Review
Morocco, 2025
Systematic
review of
studies (1997–
2023)
Shadowing improves
phoneme perception, word
recognition, and bottom-up
listening comprehension;
pág. 7579
effective especially for
beginners.
The Use of Comprehensible
Input to Improve Listening
Comprehension in High
School EFL Students: A
Literature Review
Ecuador, 2025
Systematic
literature
review
(PRISMA-
based)
Podcasts, audiovisual
materials, gamification, and
interactive activities improve
listening comprehension;
multimodal input enhances
engagement.
The Basics of English
Speaking
Indonesia, 2025
Theoretical
book (didactic
analysis and
pedagogical
proposal)
Explains components of
speaking (pronunciation,
fluency, accuracy); integrates
psychological and
technological perspectives to
improve oral communication.
Developing Oral Fluency in
English: EFL Teachers’
Understanding, Self-
Reported Practices, and
Textbook Support
Colombia, 2025
Qualitative
study (semi-
structured
interviews +
textbook
content
analysis)
Teachers view fluency as
both general proficiency and
specific speech ability; use
communicative activities but
textbooks provide limited
fluency support.
The Implementation of
Shadowing Technique to
Enhance Students’
Speaking Skills at School of
Foreign Languages – Thai
Nguyen University
Vietnam, 2025
Mixed method
(pre/post-test,
questionnaire,
interviews)
Shadowing improved
pronunciation, fluency, and
confidence; students had
positive attitudes toward
authentic materials.
effective especially for
beginners.
The Use of Comprehensible
Input to Improve Listening
Comprehension in High
School EFL Students: A
Literature Review
Ecuador, 2025
Systematic
literature
review
(PRISMA-
based)
Podcasts, audiovisual
materials, gamification, and
interactive activities improve
listening comprehension;
multimodal input enhances
engagement.
The Basics of English
Speaking
Indonesia, 2025
Theoretical
book (didactic
analysis and
pedagogical
proposal)
Explains components of
speaking (pronunciation,
fluency, accuracy); integrates
psychological and
technological perspectives to
improve oral communication.
Developing Oral Fluency in
English: EFL Teachers’
Understanding, Self-
Reported Practices, and
Textbook Support
Colombia, 2025
Qualitative
study (semi-
structured
interviews +
textbook
content
analysis)
Teachers view fluency as
both general proficiency and
specific speech ability; use
communicative activities but
textbooks provide limited
fluency support.
The Implementation of
Shadowing Technique to
Enhance Students’
Speaking Skills at School of
Foreign Languages – Thai
Nguyen University
Vietnam, 2025
Mixed method
(pre/post-test,
questionnaire,
interviews)
Shadowing improved
pronunciation, fluency, and
confidence; students had
positive attitudes toward
authentic materials.
pág. 7580
Note: the table shows the conducted literature review provided foundational and contemporary insights
crucial for understanding this research. The selected investigations offer diverse perspectives on the
unique characteristics of adult learners, the obstacles they face, and effective pedagogical strategies.
Figure 1: Shadowing in Language Learning
The figure synthesizes the literature on shadowing in language learning into six thematic domains:
methodological configurations, participant ecologies, linguistic learning outcomes, affective
motivational outcomes, pedagogical moderators and implementation conditions, and conceptual–
curricular framings. At the center, shadowing functions as the core construct linking empirical designs
(ethnographic, mixed, systematic), learner populations (secondary, higher education, professionals), and
outcome clusters (fluency, comprehensibility, prosody). Peripheral nodes specify key subthemes
duration, feedback, teacher scaffolding; anxiety reduction, confidence gains, motivation; Input/Output
and Cognitive Load theories thereby delineating the principal mechanisms and contexts through which
shadowing exerts its effects.
Note: the table shows the conducted literature review provided foundational and contemporary insights
crucial for understanding this research. The selected investigations offer diverse perspectives on the
unique characteristics of adult learners, the obstacles they face, and effective pedagogical strategies.
Figure 1: Shadowing in Language Learning
The figure synthesizes the literature on shadowing in language learning into six thematic domains:
methodological configurations, participant ecologies, linguistic learning outcomes, affective
motivational outcomes, pedagogical moderators and implementation conditions, and conceptual–
curricular framings. At the center, shadowing functions as the core construct linking empirical designs
(ethnographic, mixed, systematic), learner populations (secondary, higher education, professionals), and
outcome clusters (fluency, comprehensibility, prosody). Peripheral nodes specify key subthemes
duration, feedback, teacher scaffolding; anxiety reduction, confidence gains, motivation; Input/Output
and Cognitive Load theories thereby delineating the principal mechanisms and contexts through which
shadowing exerts its effects.
pág. 7581
1) Methodological Configurations
Across the corpus, methodological pluralism is evident. Jeremy and Spandagou (2025) position
ethnographic shadowing as a qualitative method within an interpretivist–constructivist paradigm,
deploying prolonged participant observation, semi-structured interviews, and field diaries to access less
visible dimensions of interprofessional educational practice. Their contribution goes beyond procedural
description to articulate the epistemic value of shadowing for capturing situated co-construction in
teacher–therapist collaboration, offering a transferable methodological scaffold for research on adult
English teaching.
Applied studies frequently adopt mixed and quasi-experimental designs to triangulate performance,
perceptions, and processes. Mu and Wasuntarasophit (2025) combine pre-/post-tests of listening
comprehension with questionnaires and learner logs; Duong Hong (2025) implements a 15-week
intervention with B1–B2 undergraduates, augmenting quantitative outcomes with interviews to probe
mechanisms of change. In secondary education, Karisma (2025) integrate guided practice, direct
observation, and pronunciation rubrics to estimate phonological accuracy and intonation, evidencing the
feasibility of formative assessment devices in regular classrooms.
Complementing primary studies, evidence syntheses add breadth and rigor. Whitworth and Rose (2025)
conduct a PRISMA-guided systematic review of 44 studies with structured extraction matrices and
narrative synthesis; El Moussaoui (2025) offers a second systematic review (1997–2023) focused on
bottom-up listening skills using thematic coding. Ali (2025) contributes a theoretical documentary
analysis integrating Input/Output hypotheses and Cognitive Load Theory into a six-step model. Finally,
Tuilan et al. (2025) present a didactic descriptive work aligning practice-oriented tasks with theoretical
foundations, useful for deriving instructional protocols.
2) Participant Ecologies
The corpus spans the educational continuum, enabling cross-level inferences. In secondary settings,
Karisma (2025).and Mu and Wasuntarasophit (2025) study adolescents, providing evidence for gains in
pronunciation, listening comprehension, and motivation at formative stages. These populations
illuminate the role of dose and authentic input in reducing anxiety and improving articulation.
1) Methodological Configurations
Across the corpus, methodological pluralism is evident. Jeremy and Spandagou (2025) position
ethnographic shadowing as a qualitative method within an interpretivist–constructivist paradigm,
deploying prolonged participant observation, semi-structured interviews, and field diaries to access less
visible dimensions of interprofessional educational practice. Their contribution goes beyond procedural
description to articulate the epistemic value of shadowing for capturing situated co-construction in
teacher–therapist collaboration, offering a transferable methodological scaffold for research on adult
English teaching.
Applied studies frequently adopt mixed and quasi-experimental designs to triangulate performance,
perceptions, and processes. Mu and Wasuntarasophit (2025) combine pre-/post-tests of listening
comprehension with questionnaires and learner logs; Duong Hong (2025) implements a 15-week
intervention with B1–B2 undergraduates, augmenting quantitative outcomes with interviews to probe
mechanisms of change. In secondary education, Karisma (2025) integrate guided practice, direct
observation, and pronunciation rubrics to estimate phonological accuracy and intonation, evidencing the
feasibility of formative assessment devices in regular classrooms.
Complementing primary studies, evidence syntheses add breadth and rigor. Whitworth and Rose (2025)
conduct a PRISMA-guided systematic review of 44 studies with structured extraction matrices and
narrative synthesis; El Moussaoui (2025) offers a second systematic review (1997–2023) focused on
bottom-up listening skills using thematic coding. Ali (2025) contributes a theoretical documentary
analysis integrating Input/Output hypotheses and Cognitive Load Theory into a six-step model. Finally,
Tuilan et al. (2025) present a didactic descriptive work aligning practice-oriented tasks with theoretical
foundations, useful for deriving instructional protocols.
2) Participant Ecologies
The corpus spans the educational continuum, enabling cross-level inferences. In secondary settings,
Karisma (2025).and Mu and Wasuntarasophit (2025) study adolescents, providing evidence for gains in
pronunciation, listening comprehension, and motivation at formative stages. These populations
illuminate the role of dose and authentic input in reducing anxiety and improving articulation.
pág. 7582
In higher education, Duong Hong (2025) intervenes with intermediate undergraduates (B1–B2) over 15
weeks, documenting improvements in fluency, pronunciation, and confidence. This segment confirms
the transferability of shadowing to more demanding academic environments while revealing constraints
such as technological access and speech rate. Meanwhile, Jeremy and Spandagou (2025) shift the
analytical lens to professionals (occupational therapists and primary teachers), broadening the
understanding of shadowing as a methodological device beyond language learning per se.
A teacher centric perspective appears in Robayo Acuña (2025), who examines EFL instructors’
conceptions and self-reported practices regarding oral fluency, contrasted with the limited scaffolding
found in textbooks. This angle exposes a gap between pedagogical intent and available resources,
creating a space where shadowing may function as a bridge strategy. The systematic reviews (Whitworth
& Rose, 2025; El Moussaoui, 2025) integrate findings across populations, supplying a panoramic view
without direct sampling.
3) Linguistic Learning Outcomes
Convergence is strong for fluency, comprehensibility, and prosody. Whitworth and Rose (2025)
synthesize sustained improvements in comprehensibility and suprasegmental features; Duong Hong
(2025) reports gain in fluency and pronunciation following an extended implementation with authentic
materials. In secondary contexts, Karisma (2025) document advances in intonation and articulatory
precision, suggesting that calibrated imitation of auditory models supports temporal and accentual
adjustments.
Effects on segmental accuracy are more variable. While Karisma (2025) notes clear phonological gains,
the review by Whitworth and Rose (2025) indicates that segmental improvement hinges on explicit
phonetic feedback and task design (prosodic vs. echo shadowing). This variability aligns with Ali’s
(2025) theoretical account, which anticipates trade-offs between cognitive load and articulatory control
when perception and production are synchronized.
On the listening dimension, findings highlight bottom-up components. El Moussaoui (2025) reports
improvements in phonemic perception and lexical segmentation, especially for lower-proficiency
learners; Mu and Wasuntarasophit (2025) add gains in vocabulary and working memory alongside
In higher education, Duong Hong (2025) intervenes with intermediate undergraduates (B1–B2) over 15
weeks, documenting improvements in fluency, pronunciation, and confidence. This segment confirms
the transferability of shadowing to more demanding academic environments while revealing constraints
such as technological access and speech rate. Meanwhile, Jeremy and Spandagou (2025) shift the
analytical lens to professionals (occupational therapists and primary teachers), broadening the
understanding of shadowing as a methodological device beyond language learning per se.
A teacher centric perspective appears in Robayo Acuña (2025), who examines EFL instructors’
conceptions and self-reported practices regarding oral fluency, contrasted with the limited scaffolding
found in textbooks. This angle exposes a gap between pedagogical intent and available resources,
creating a space where shadowing may function as a bridge strategy. The systematic reviews (Whitworth
& Rose, 2025; El Moussaoui, 2025) integrate findings across populations, supplying a panoramic view
without direct sampling.
3) Linguistic Learning Outcomes
Convergence is strong for fluency, comprehensibility, and prosody. Whitworth and Rose (2025)
synthesize sustained improvements in comprehensibility and suprasegmental features; Duong Hong
(2025) reports gain in fluency and pronunciation following an extended implementation with authentic
materials. In secondary contexts, Karisma (2025) document advances in intonation and articulatory
precision, suggesting that calibrated imitation of auditory models supports temporal and accentual
adjustments.
Effects on segmental accuracy are more variable. While Karisma (2025) notes clear phonological gains,
the review by Whitworth and Rose (2025) indicates that segmental improvement hinges on explicit
phonetic feedback and task design (prosodic vs. echo shadowing). This variability aligns with Ali’s
(2025) theoretical account, which anticipates trade-offs between cognitive load and articulatory control
when perception and production are synchronized.
On the listening dimension, findings highlight bottom-up components. El Moussaoui (2025) reports
improvements in phonemic perception and lexical segmentation, especially for lower-proficiency
learners; Mu and Wasuntarasophit (2025) add gains in vocabulary and working memory alongside
pág. 7583
comprehension, underscoring shadowing’s dual role as decoding practice and rehearsal that strengthens
phonological assembly.
4) Affective and Motivational Outcomes
Applied studies frequently report anxiety reduction and confidence gains associated with shadowing,
particularly when teacher modeling and authentic input are integrated. Mu and Wasuntarasophit (2025)
observe heightened motivation with decreased anxiety, while Duong Hong (2025) documents favorable
attitudes toward authentic materials, suggesting a virtuous cycle between perceived relevance of input
and willingness to engage in intensive practice.
The didactic framework proposed by Tuilan et al. (2025) contextualizes these effects pedagogically,
emphasizing the need to overcome psychological barriers (anxiety, lack of confidence) through
communicative simulation and pronunciation tasks tied to clear objectives. Such proposals resonate with
empirical findings and offer actionable pathways to consolidate affective benefits.
Methodologically, Jeremy and Spandagou (2025) show how shadowing, as qualitative inquiry, reveals
invisible dimensions of professional interaction; transposed to classroom practice, this principle implies
that fine-grained observation and guided reflection may enhance learners’ self-monitoring, with
collateral effects on self-efficacy and emotional regulation during demanding oral tasks.
5) Pedagogical Moderators and Implementation Conditions
Duration emerges as a critical moderator: interventions of more than 6–8 weeks (e.g., Duong Hong,
2025) tend to yield more stable gains in fluency and prosody than shorter implementations. This pattern
coheres with Whitworth and Rose (2025), who associate sustained exposure and feedback with
improvements in comprehensibility.
Shadowing type and feedback regime condition outcomes. Prosodic approaches foster natural temporal
and stress contours, whereas echo shadowing supports segmental calibration; in the absence of explicit
phonetic feedback, precision on difficult sounds fluctuates (Whitworth & Rose, 2025; Pratiwi &
Hapsari, 2025). Moreover, input speed and authenticity influence cognitive load: Mu and
Wasuntarasophit (2025) and Duong Hong (2025) note that high speech rates and limited technological
access can dampen progress.
comprehension, underscoring shadowing’s dual role as decoding practice and rehearsal that strengthens
phonological assembly.
4) Affective and Motivational Outcomes
Applied studies frequently report anxiety reduction and confidence gains associated with shadowing,
particularly when teacher modeling and authentic input are integrated. Mu and Wasuntarasophit (2025)
observe heightened motivation with decreased anxiety, while Duong Hong (2025) documents favorable
attitudes toward authentic materials, suggesting a virtuous cycle between perceived relevance of input
and willingness to engage in intensive practice.
The didactic framework proposed by Tuilan et al. (2025) contextualizes these effects pedagogically,
emphasizing the need to overcome psychological barriers (anxiety, lack of confidence) through
communicative simulation and pronunciation tasks tied to clear objectives. Such proposals resonate with
empirical findings and offer actionable pathways to consolidate affective benefits.
Methodologically, Jeremy and Spandagou (2025) show how shadowing, as qualitative inquiry, reveals
invisible dimensions of professional interaction; transposed to classroom practice, this principle implies
that fine-grained observation and guided reflection may enhance learners’ self-monitoring, with
collateral effects on self-efficacy and emotional regulation during demanding oral tasks.
5) Pedagogical Moderators and Implementation Conditions
Duration emerges as a critical moderator: interventions of more than 6–8 weeks (e.g., Duong Hong,
2025) tend to yield more stable gains in fluency and prosody than shorter implementations. This pattern
coheres with Whitworth and Rose (2025), who associate sustained exposure and feedback with
improvements in comprehensibility.
Shadowing type and feedback regime condition outcomes. Prosodic approaches foster natural temporal
and stress contours, whereas echo shadowing supports segmental calibration; in the absence of explicit
phonetic feedback, precision on difficult sounds fluctuates (Whitworth & Rose, 2025; Pratiwi &
Hapsari, 2025). Moreover, input speed and authenticity influence cognitive load: Mu and
Wasuntarasophit (2025) and Duong Hong (2025) note that high speech rates and limited technological
access can dampen progress.
pág. 7584
Teacher scaffolding and task design act as levers. Evidence supports integrating modeling, targeted
rubrics, and guided practice (Pratiwi & Hapsari, 2025; Tuilan, Tuerah, & Pabur, 2025), and sequencing
macro-level prosodic frames with micro-level segmental goals. These design decisions enhance transfer
to communicative tasks and mitigate heterogeneity in effects, as echoed in the PRISMA-based review
on multimodal comprehensible input (Ibarra-Balarezo & Guaman-Luna, 2025).
6) Conceptual and Curricular Framings
Conceptually, Thao & LY (2025) advances a theoretical scaffold that articulates Input/Output
perspectives with Cognitive Load Theory, yielding a six-step model to operationalize shadowing for
listening-speaking development. This framing explains why perception production simultaneity can
accelerate automatization of sound sequences, provided that cognitive load is managed through graded
materials.
Auricularly, Robayo Acuña (2025) documents a misalignment between teachers’ conceptions of fluency
and the actual support afforded by textbooks, underscoring the need for targeted materials that integrate
shadowing with oral genres, performance criteria, and formative assessment. The handbook by Tuilan
et al. (2025) offer a practical bridge, aligning concrete exercises with pronunciation and fluency goals
suitable for adult courses.
Finally, Jeremy and Spandagou (2025) position shadowing as a research lens capable of revealing ethical
and logistical tensions in professional collaboration. This perspective invites us to view shadowing not
only as an instructional technique but also as a methodological instrument for designing, observing, and
refining curricular interventions in adult EFL contexts.
Conclusions
The shadowing strategy is an effective pedagogical approach for developing communicative
competence in adult EFL learners. Its structured, repetitive, and auditory nature aligns well with adult
learning principles and promotes confidence and fluency.From a theoretical perspective, the shadowing
strategy represents a coherent and empirically validated pedagogical framework that strengthens second
language acquisition through the integration of active auditory processing, immediate oral reproduction,
and cognitive reinforcement. The literature reviewed confirms that shadowing activates simultaneous
perceptual and productive mechanisms, promoting deep processing of linguistic input.
Teacher scaffolding and task design act as levers. Evidence supports integrating modeling, targeted
rubrics, and guided practice (Pratiwi & Hapsari, 2025; Tuilan, Tuerah, & Pabur, 2025), and sequencing
macro-level prosodic frames with micro-level segmental goals. These design decisions enhance transfer
to communicative tasks and mitigate heterogeneity in effects, as echoed in the PRISMA-based review
on multimodal comprehensible input (Ibarra-Balarezo & Guaman-Luna, 2025).
6) Conceptual and Curricular Framings
Conceptually, Thao & LY (2025) advances a theoretical scaffold that articulates Input/Output
perspectives with Cognitive Load Theory, yielding a six-step model to operationalize shadowing for
listening-speaking development. This framing explains why perception production simultaneity can
accelerate automatization of sound sequences, provided that cognitive load is managed through graded
materials.
Auricularly, Robayo Acuña (2025) documents a misalignment between teachers’ conceptions of fluency
and the actual support afforded by textbooks, underscoring the need for targeted materials that integrate
shadowing with oral genres, performance criteria, and formative assessment. The handbook by Tuilan
et al. (2025) offer a practical bridge, aligning concrete exercises with pronunciation and fluency goals
suitable for adult courses.
Finally, Jeremy and Spandagou (2025) position shadowing as a research lens capable of revealing ethical
and logistical tensions in professional collaboration. This perspective invites us to view shadowing not
only as an instructional technique but also as a methodological instrument for designing, observing, and
refining curricular interventions in adult EFL contexts.
Conclusions
The shadowing strategy is an effective pedagogical approach for developing communicative
competence in adult EFL learners. Its structured, repetitive, and auditory nature aligns well with adult
learning principles and promotes confidence and fluency.From a theoretical perspective, the shadowing
strategy represents a coherent and empirically validated pedagogical framework that strengthens second
language acquisition through the integration of active auditory processing, immediate oral reproduction,
and cognitive reinforcement. The literature reviewed confirms that shadowing activates simultaneous
perceptual and productive mechanisms, promoting deep processing of linguistic input.
pág. 7585
Recent research evidence that this approach not only refines phonological awareness and prosodic
accuracy but also consolidates automatization in speech production key elements in the formation of
communicative competence, (Hamada, 2016). Furthermore, theoretical advances in neurolinguistics and
dynamic systems theory have positioned shadowing as a practice that harmonizes with the brain’s
capacity for procedural learning and auditory-motor synchronization, offering a scientifically grounded
method for adult EFL instruction.
From an epistemological standpoint, shadowing situates language learning within the constructivist and
sociocultural paradigms that emphasize the co-construction of knowledge through interaction, imitation,
and reflection. This strategy transforms input into output through a cyclical process of perception,
articulation, and monitoring, allowing learners to internalize linguistic structures in meaningful contexts.
In alignment with Vygotsky’s (1978) notion of the Zone of Proximal Development and Krashen’s
(1982) Input Hypothesis, shadowing bridges theory and practice by turning comprehension into
production and practice into awareness. Consequently, the epistemic consistency of shadowing lies in
its ability to merge explicit and implicit learning pathways, supporting metalinguistic growth and
communicative autonomy in adult learners.
From an axiological dimension, the shadowing technique holds profound educational and ethical value
by fostering autonomy, persistence, and self-efficacy essential attributes of lifelong learning. Its iterative
and reflective nature cultivates learner responsibility and perseverance, encouraging adults to regulate
their learning process consciously. Moreover, shadowing embodies an inclusive and equitable
pedagogical principle, adaptable to diverse linguistic profiles, proficiency levels, and sociocultural
identities. By promoting access, engagement, and confidence, it aligns with contemporary values of
humanized and justice-oriented education, ensuring that language learning transcends technical
proficiency to become an empowering experience.
In conclusion, when implemented through a principled, research-informed, and reflective pedagogical
framework, shadowing transcends mechanical imitation to function as a transformative educational
process. It integrates theoretical rigor, epistemological coherence, and axiological significance, leading
to the development of authentic communicative competence in adult English learners. This synthesis
reaffirms that effective second language pedagogy must not only target linguistic outcomes but also
Recent research evidence that this approach not only refines phonological awareness and prosodic
accuracy but also consolidates automatization in speech production key elements in the formation of
communicative competence, (Hamada, 2016). Furthermore, theoretical advances in neurolinguistics and
dynamic systems theory have positioned shadowing as a practice that harmonizes with the brain’s
capacity for procedural learning and auditory-motor synchronization, offering a scientifically grounded
method for adult EFL instruction.
From an epistemological standpoint, shadowing situates language learning within the constructivist and
sociocultural paradigms that emphasize the co-construction of knowledge through interaction, imitation,
and reflection. This strategy transforms input into output through a cyclical process of perception,
articulation, and monitoring, allowing learners to internalize linguistic structures in meaningful contexts.
In alignment with Vygotsky’s (1978) notion of the Zone of Proximal Development and Krashen’s
(1982) Input Hypothesis, shadowing bridges theory and practice by turning comprehension into
production and practice into awareness. Consequently, the epistemic consistency of shadowing lies in
its ability to merge explicit and implicit learning pathways, supporting metalinguistic growth and
communicative autonomy in adult learners.
From an axiological dimension, the shadowing technique holds profound educational and ethical value
by fostering autonomy, persistence, and self-efficacy essential attributes of lifelong learning. Its iterative
and reflective nature cultivates learner responsibility and perseverance, encouraging adults to regulate
their learning process consciously. Moreover, shadowing embodies an inclusive and equitable
pedagogical principle, adaptable to diverse linguistic profiles, proficiency levels, and sociocultural
identities. By promoting access, engagement, and confidence, it aligns with contemporary values of
humanized and justice-oriented education, ensuring that language learning transcends technical
proficiency to become an empowering experience.
In conclusion, when implemented through a principled, research-informed, and reflective pedagogical
framework, shadowing transcends mechanical imitation to function as a transformative educational
process. It integrates theoretical rigor, epistemological coherence, and axiological significance, leading
to the development of authentic communicative competence in adult English learners. This synthesis
reaffirms that effective second language pedagogy must not only target linguistic outcomes but also
pág. 7586
cultivate cognitive awareness, emotional engagement, and ethical responsibility in the act of learning a
language.
Discussion
The present systematic review yields compelling evidence regarding the multidimensional effects of
shadowing on the oral competence of adult English as a Foreign Language learners. The convergent
findings across diverse methodological approaches ranging from quasi-experimental designs to
ethnographic inquiries substantiate the efficacy of shadowing as a pedagogical intervention, while
simultaneously illuminating the contextual and instructional factors that modulate its outcomes.
The most robust finding emerging from this synthesis pertains to consistent enhancements in fluency
and prosodic features among adult EFL learners. Studies conducted across varied educational settings
secondary institutions in Indonesia and China, tertiary contexts in Vietnam, and professional
development programs unanimously report measurable gains in speech continuity, reduced pause
frequency, and improved suprasegmental control. These improvements appear intrinsically linked to the
imitative nature of shadowing, which compels learners to synchronize their production with native or
proficient models, thereby internalizing temporal patterns, stress placement, and intonational contours
through repetitive exposure and articulation.
The theoretical underpinnings of these gains resonate with principles derived from Cognitive Load
Theory and Input-Output frameworks. Shadowing operates as a bridge between receptive and productive
modalities, transforming passive listening into active speech production within compressed temporal
windows. This dual-channel processing facilitates the development of phonological automaticity as a
prerequisite for fluent oral performance by reducing the cognitive burden associated with planning and
monitoring during spontaneous communication. The documented improvements in working memory
capacity and attentional focus, particularly evident in the Chinese secondary school context, further
corroborate the cognitive advantages conferred by sustained shadowing practice.
Conversely, the evidence regarding segmental accuracy reveals a more nuanced and heterogeneous
pattern. While certain studies document phonological refinement at the segmental level, others report
minimal or inconsistent effects on the production of individual phonemes. This variability underscores
a critical insight: shadowing, when implemented without explicit phonetic instruction or targeted
cultivate cognitive awareness, emotional engagement, and ethical responsibility in the act of learning a
language.
Discussion
The present systematic review yields compelling evidence regarding the multidimensional effects of
shadowing on the oral competence of adult English as a Foreign Language learners. The convergent
findings across diverse methodological approaches ranging from quasi-experimental designs to
ethnographic inquiries substantiate the efficacy of shadowing as a pedagogical intervention, while
simultaneously illuminating the contextual and instructional factors that modulate its outcomes.
The most robust finding emerging from this synthesis pertains to consistent enhancements in fluency
and prosodic features among adult EFL learners. Studies conducted across varied educational settings
secondary institutions in Indonesia and China, tertiary contexts in Vietnam, and professional
development programs unanimously report measurable gains in speech continuity, reduced pause
frequency, and improved suprasegmental control. These improvements appear intrinsically linked to the
imitative nature of shadowing, which compels learners to synchronize their production with native or
proficient models, thereby internalizing temporal patterns, stress placement, and intonational contours
through repetitive exposure and articulation.
The theoretical underpinnings of these gains resonate with principles derived from Cognitive Load
Theory and Input-Output frameworks. Shadowing operates as a bridge between receptive and productive
modalities, transforming passive listening into active speech production within compressed temporal
windows. This dual-channel processing facilitates the development of phonological automaticity as a
prerequisite for fluent oral performance by reducing the cognitive burden associated with planning and
monitoring during spontaneous communication. The documented improvements in working memory
capacity and attentional focus, particularly evident in the Chinese secondary school context, further
corroborate the cognitive advantages conferred by sustained shadowing practice.
Conversely, the evidence regarding segmental accuracy reveals a more nuanced and heterogeneous
pattern. While certain studies document phonological refinement at the segmental level, others report
minimal or inconsistent effects on the production of individual phonemes. This variability underscores
a critical insight: shadowing, when implemented without explicit phonetic instruction or targeted
pág. 7587
corrective feedback, tends to privilege suprasegmental over segmental dimensions of pronunciation. The
prosodic focus inherent in shadowing emphasizing rhythm, melody, and stress may inadvertently
overshadow attention to individual sound articulation, particularly for learners whose first language
phonological systems diverge substantially from English.
This observation aligns with theoretical distinctions between global intelligibility and segmental
precision. Comprehensibility, defined as the ease with which listeners understand a speaker, correlates
more strongly with prosodic accuracy than with phonemic precision. Thus, shadowing's demonstrable
effects on comprehensibility reflect its orientation toward holistic communicative effectiveness rather
than native-like segmental production. For adult learners whose primary objective centers on functional
communication in professional or academic contexts, this emphasis may prove pedagogically
appropriate, though instructors must remain cognizant of potential gaps in phonemic mastery.
REFERENCES
Alsaedi, B. (2024). AI in learning English: Enhancing English skills through the use of AI-powered
language learning tools. International Journal of Education and Social Science Research, 7(5),
82-94. DOI: https://doi.org/10.37500/IJESSR.2024.7508
Betancourt, B. L. C., & Ramos, A. D. U. (2024). Reflecting about bilingualism policies in non-English
speaking countries in Latin America: The case of Colombia and Argentina. Rastros Rostros,
26(1), 2. https://doi.org/10.16925/2382-4921.2024.01.03
Betancourt, B. L. C., Angarita, M. C. R., & Moreno, D. M. T. (2025). Collaborative online international
learning (coil) and its impact in the EFL classroom. A literature review. Lex Localis, 23(S4),
3840-3858. https://doi.org/10.52152/801151
Birdsong, D., & Molis, M. (2001). On the evidence for maturational constraints in second-language
acquisition. Journal of Memory and Language, 44(2), 235–249.
https://doi.org/10.1006/jmla.2000.2750 dspace.ucuenca.edu.ec
Coley, R. (2022). The Relationship Between Community College Instructors’ Perception of
Andragogical Orientation and Instructional Style Walden University.
Corral-Robles, S., Ortega-Martín, J. L., Martínez-Heredia, N., & González-Gijón, G. (2024). Emotional
Engagement and ICT-Driven Transformations in Older Adults' Language Learning. Iranian
corrective feedback, tends to privilege suprasegmental over segmental dimensions of pronunciation. The
prosodic focus inherent in shadowing emphasizing rhythm, melody, and stress may inadvertently
overshadow attention to individual sound articulation, particularly for learners whose first language
phonological systems diverge substantially from English.
This observation aligns with theoretical distinctions between global intelligibility and segmental
precision. Comprehensibility, defined as the ease with which listeners understand a speaker, correlates
more strongly with prosodic accuracy than with phonemic precision. Thus, shadowing's demonstrable
effects on comprehensibility reflect its orientation toward holistic communicative effectiveness rather
than native-like segmental production. For adult learners whose primary objective centers on functional
communication in professional or academic contexts, this emphasis may prove pedagogically
appropriate, though instructors must remain cognizant of potential gaps in phonemic mastery.
REFERENCES
Alsaedi, B. (2024). AI in learning English: Enhancing English skills through the use of AI-powered
language learning tools. International Journal of Education and Social Science Research, 7(5),
82-94. DOI: https://doi.org/10.37500/IJESSR.2024.7508
Betancourt, B. L. C., & Ramos, A. D. U. (2024). Reflecting about bilingualism policies in non-English
speaking countries in Latin America: The case of Colombia and Argentina. Rastros Rostros,
26(1), 2. https://doi.org/10.16925/2382-4921.2024.01.03
Betancourt, B. L. C., Angarita, M. C. R., & Moreno, D. M. T. (2025). Collaborative online international
learning (coil) and its impact in the EFL classroom. A literature review. Lex Localis, 23(S4),
3840-3858. https://doi.org/10.52152/801151
Birdsong, D., & Molis, M. (2001). On the evidence for maturational constraints in second-language
acquisition. Journal of Memory and Language, 44(2), 235–249.
https://doi.org/10.1006/jmla.2000.2750 dspace.ucuenca.edu.ec
Coley, R. (2022). The Relationship Between Community College Instructors’ Perception of
Andragogical Orientation and Instructional Style Walden University.
Corral-Robles, S., Ortega-Martín, J. L., Martínez-Heredia, N., & González-Gijón, G. (2024). Emotional
Engagement and ICT-Driven Transformations in Older Adults' Language Learning. Iranian
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9922.2012.00737.x Wiley Online Library+1
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skills at School of Foreign Languages – Thai Nguyen University. International Journal of All
Research Writings, 6(11), 592–596. ijarw.com
Duong, T. T., & Nguyen, H. L. (2025). A theoretical overview of the shadowing technique in developing
listening and speaking skills. International Journal of Educational Research and Development,
7(3), 1–5. allinnovationjournal.com
Duong, T. T., & Nguyen, H. L. (2025). The shadowing technique in EFL classrooms: Balancing
cognitive load and fluency development. All Innovation Journal, 7(2), 34–49.
El Moussaoui, M. (2025). Shadowing for developing EFL learners’ bottom-up listening skills: A
systematic review. International Journal of Language and Literary Studies, 7(4), 388–404.
https://doi.org/10.36892/ijlls.v7i4.2260 mail.ijlls.org
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considerations. National Center for ESL Literacy Education.
Flowerdew, J., & Peacock, M. (Eds.). (2001). Research perspectives on English for academic purposes.
Cambridge University Press. ResearchGate
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Science and an Agenda for Future Research in Variationist SLA. Languages, 10(4),
64. https://doi.org/10.3390/languages10040064
Journal of Language Teaching Research, 12(3), 177-196.
https://doi.org/10.30466/ijltr.2024.121582
Crystal, D. (2012). English as a global language (2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press. Google Books
DeKeyser, R. M. (Ed.). (2007). Practice in a second language: Perspectives from applied linguistics
and cognitive psychology. Cambridge University Press. Google Books
DeKeyser, R. M. (2013). Age effects in second language learning: Stepping stones toward better
understanding. Language Learning, 63(s1), 52–67. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-
9922.2012.00737.x Wiley Online Library+1
Duong Hong, Y. (2025). The implementation of shadowing technique to enhance students’ speaking
skills at School of Foreign Languages – Thai Nguyen University. International Journal of All
Research Writings, 6(11), 592–596. ijarw.com
Duong, T. T., & Nguyen, H. L. (2025). A theoretical overview of the shadowing technique in developing
listening and speaking skills. International Journal of Educational Research and Development,
7(3), 1–5. allinnovationjournal.com
Duong, T. T., & Nguyen, H. L. (2025). The shadowing technique in EFL classrooms: Balancing
cognitive load and fluency development. All Innovation Journal, 7(2), 34–49.
El Moussaoui, M. (2025). Shadowing for developing EFL learners’ bottom-up listening skills: A
systematic review. International Journal of Language and Literary Studies, 7(4), 388–404.
https://doi.org/10.36892/ijlls.v7i4.2260 mail.ijlls.org
Ellis, R. (2015). Understanding second language acquisition (2nd ed.). Oxford University Press.
Florez, M. C., & Burt, M. (2001). Beginning to work with adult English language learners: Some
considerations. National Center for ESL Literacy Education.
Flowerdew, J., & Peacock, M. (Eds.). (2001). Research perspectives on English for academic purposes.
Cambridge University Press. ResearchGate
Gudmestad, A., & Kanwit, M. (2025). Reconsidering the Social in Language Learning: A State of the
Science and an Agenda for Future Research in Variationist SLA. Languages, 10(4),
64. https://doi.org/10.3390/languages10040064
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adult learning advantage (pp. 209-231). IGI Global. DOI: 10.4018/978-1-7998-4516-4.ch009
Hamada, Y. (2016). Shadowing: Who benefits and how? Uncovering a booming EFL teaching technique
for listening. Language Teaching Research, 20(1), 35–52.
https://doi.org/10.1177/1362168815597504 ResearchGate+1
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(pp. 269–293). Penguin Books. Cambridge University Press & Assessment
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languages: An update of BLC theory. Languages, 9(5), 173.
https://doi.org/10.3390/languages9050173
Ibarra-Balarezo, S. C., & Guaman-Luna, M. M. (2025). The use of multimodal comprehensible input in
the development of listening comprehension: A systematic literature review. Revista Mexicana
de Investigación e Intervención Educativa, 4(S1), 171–182.
https://doi.org/10.62697/rmiie.v4iS1.160 pablolatapisarre.edu.mx
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limitations in educational research. International Journal of Qualitative Methods, 24, 1–15.
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Psychology, 21(1), 60–99. https://doi.org/10.1016/0010-0285(89)90003-0 ScienceDirect+1
Karisma, S. (2025). Investigating shadowing technique to reinforce English pronunciation skills for
senior high school students in Jakarta [Undergraduate thesis, Universitas Islam Negeri K. H.
Abdurrahman Wahid Pekalongan].
Hamlin, M. D. (2020). Creating an andragogy for adult learning advantage. In Building and maintaining
adult learning advantage (pp. 209-231). IGI Global. DOI: 10.4018/978-1-7998-4516-4.ch009
Hamada, Y. (2016). Shadowing: Who benefits and how? Uncovering a booming EFL teaching technique
for listening. Language Teaching Research, 20(1), 35–52.
https://doi.org/10.1177/1362168815597504 ResearchGate+1
Horwitz, E. K., Horwitz, M. B., & Cope, J. (1986). Foreign language classroom anxiety. The Modern
Language Journal, 70(2), 125–132. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-4781.1986.tb05256.x Wiley
Online Library+1
Hymes, D. (1972). On communicative competence. In J. B. Pride & J. Holmes (Eds.), Sociolinguistics
(pp. 269–293). Penguin Books. Cambridge University Press & Assessment
Hulstijn, J. (2024). Predictions of individual differences in the acquisition of native and non-native
languages: An update of BLC theory. Languages, 9(5), 173.
https://doi.org/10.3390/languages9050173
Ibarra-Balarezo, S. C., & Guaman-Luna, M. M. (2025). The use of multimodal comprehensible input in
the development of listening comprehension: A systematic literature review. Revista Mexicana
de Investigación e Intervención Educativa, 4(S1), 171–182.
https://doi.org/10.62697/rmiie.v4iS1.160 pablolatapisarre.edu.mx
Jeremy, J., & Spandagou, I. (2025). Shadowing as qualitative inquiry: Exploring its potential and
limitations in educational research. International Journal of Qualitative Methods, 24, 1–15.
https://doi.org/10.1177/16094069251330720 SAGE Journals+1
Johnson, J. S., & Newport, E. L. (1989). Critical period effects in second language learning: The
influence of maturational state on the acquisition of English as a second language. Cognitive
Psychology, 21(1), 60–99. https://doi.org/10.1016/0010-0285(89)90003-0 ScienceDirect+1
Karisma, S. (2025). Investigating shadowing technique to reinforce English pronunciation skills for
senior high school students in Jakarta [Undergraduate thesis, Universitas Islam Negeri K. H.
Abdurrahman Wahid Pekalongan].
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Parzyck, A. E. (2024). Treating first-year students like adult learners: Exploring first-year seminar
instructors’ classroom environments, teaching techniques, and philosophies. Kansas State
University.
Robayo Acuña, L. M. (2025). Developing oral fluency in English: EFL teachers’ understanding, self-
reported practices, and textbook support. Profile: Issues in Teachers’ Professional
Development, 27(2), 121–136. https://doi.org/10.15446/profile.v27n2.115146 SciELO
Colombia+1
Savicevic, D. M. (1999). Adult Education: From Practice to Theory Building. Studies in Pedagogy,
Andragogy, and Gerontagogy 37. Peter Lang Publishing, Inc., 275 Seventh Avenue, 28th Fl.,
New York, NY 10001-6708.
Seidlhofer, B. (2011). Understanding English as a lingua franca. Oxford University Press. SCIRP
Skehan, P. (2018). A cognitive approach to language learning. Oxford University Press. SCIRP
Sweller, J. (2011). Cognitive load theory. In J. P. Mestre & B. H. Ross (Eds.), Psychology of learning
and motivation (Vol. 55, pp. 37–76). Academic Press. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-
387691-1.00002-8 ScienceDirect+1
Thao, D. T., & LY, N. H. (2025). A theoretical overview of the shadowing technique in developing
listening and speaking skills among students.
Talapova, A. K., & Iliyas, Z. N. (2024). Shadowing as a tool for adult learners in EFL contexts. Journal
of Applied Linguistics, 14(4), 201–218.
Tuilan, J., Tuerah, I. J. C., & Pabur, H. E. (2025). The basics of English speaking. Tahta Media Group.
Wang, V., & Farmer, L. (2008). Adult teaching methods in China and Bloom’s taxonomy. International
Journal for the Scholarship of Teaching and Learning, 2(2), 13.
https://doi.org/10.20429/ijsotl.2008.020213
Whitworth, B., & Rose, H. (2025). A systematic review of research on the use of shadowing for second
language pronunciation teaching. Research Synthesis in Applied Linguistics, 1–31.
https://doi.org/10.1080/29984475.2025.2546827